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LIBRARY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL
PLANTING.
AN INDEX.
PrBUSHED U^DER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
LONDON:
BALDWIN AND CRADOCK, P ATE RNOSTE R-RO W.
MDCCCXXXII.
COMMITTEE.
CAairm/ui— The Right (loo. the LORD CHANCEI.LOll. Viee-Chairman— The Rt. Hon. LORD JOHN RUSSELL, M.P., Pajroastei General.
W. Allen, Esq., F.R. & R.A.S.
Kt. Hon Vise. Allhorp, M.P. Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Rt. Hon. Lord Ashley, M.P. F.R.A.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Auckland, Presi- dent of the Board of Trade.
\V. B Baring, Esq.
Capl. F. Beaufort, R.N., F.R. and R.A.S., Hydrographer to the Admiralty.
SirO. Bell, F.R.S. L. and E.
John Hostock, M.D. F.R.S.
The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Chichester.
M'illiam Coulsnn, Esq.
R. D.Craig, Esq.
Wm. Crawford, Esq.
J. Fred. Daniell, Esq.. F.R.S.
-WILLIAM TOOKE, Esq., F.R.S.
I Sir T. Denman, M.P., Attor-IEdwin Hill, Esq.
nev-General. Sir J.Cam Hobhouse,Bt.,M.P.
Rt. Hon. Lord Dover, F.R.S., Secrctarv at War.
F.S.A. iDavid Jardine, Esq., A.M.
Lt. Drummond, R.E.F.R.A.S. Henrv B. Ker, Es^. Viscount Ehringlon, M.P. Th. Hewitt Kev, Esq., A.M.
T. F.Ellis, Esq.,.ll. A, F.H.A.S. George C. Lewis, Esq., M.A. John Elliolson, M.D., F R.S. lEdward Llovd, Esq., M.A. How. Elphinslone. Esq., M.A. James Lochi Esq. M.P.,F.G.S. Thom.as Falconer, Esq. . George Long, Esq., A.M.
I. L. Goldsmid, Esq., F.R. and J. W. Lubbock, Esq.,F.R.,R.A.
R.A.S. i and L.S.S.
B. Gouipertz, Esq., F.R. and Zacharv .Macaulay, Esq.
R.A.S. M. Maiden, Esq, A.M.
G. B. Greenough, Esq., F.R. Sir B. H. Malkin, M.A.
and L.S. i A. T. Malkin, Esq., M.A.
H.Hallam, Esq., F.R.S,, M.A. 'James Manning, Esq. M. D. Hill, Esq. J.HermanMerivale,Esq.,K.A.S.
les MiU, Esq.
M. D. Hill, Esq.
Rowland Hill, Esq., F.R.A.i
W. H. Ord, Esq.
Rt Hon. Sir H. Parnell, Burl.
M.P. Rl. Hon. T. S. Rice, M. P.
F.A.S., Sec. to the Treasurv. Dr. Roget, Sec, R.S., F.U.A..S. Sir M. A.Shee, P.U.A., K.R.S Rev. Richard Sheepshanks,
M.A J. Smith, Esq., M.P. Wm. Sturch, Esq. Dr. A.T.Thomson, F.L.S. N. A. Vigors, Esq., F.K.S. John Ward, Esq. H. VVavmouth, Esq. J. Whiihaw, Esq., M.A ,F.R.S. John Wrotlesley, Esq., M.A.
Sec, R.A,S.
Anglesea — Rev. E. Williams, hiv. W. Johnson. Mr. Miller. A-flthurton — J.F.Kingston, Esq Bihton—Kev. W. Leigh. Birmingham.— Rev. John Cor- rie, F.K.S., CliairTjian. Paul Moon James, Esq.,
Treasurer. Jos. Parkes, Esq. ) Hon. W. Redfern, Esa. f Sees. Bonn — Leonard Homer, Esq.
F.R.S L&E. Bristol— ]. N. Sanders, Esq., Chaii-man. J. Reynolds, Esq., Treas. J. B.' Estlin, Esq., F.L.S., Sec. Bun/ S(. Edmunds.— v. Bevan,
Esq.
Cambridge — Rev. James Bow- stead, M.A.
Rev. Prof Henslow, M.A., F.L.S. &G.S.
Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A,,
Rev. John Lodie. M.A. Rev. Gen. Peacock, M.A.,
F.K.S.4G.S. Rev. Prol. Se<|.-wick. M.A.,
F.R S. S G.S. Profi'ssor Snivih, M.A. R»v. C ThirUvHll, M.A. K. \V Rothman. Esq., M.A.
F.H.A.S, & G.S. Rev. Georue Waddingion. Canleibury — Alex.B. Higgins,
Esq.
Canton— J. F. Da F.R.S.
Esq.,
Carnanon—n. A. Poole, Esq.
William Hoberts, Esq. C;.M(er— Haves Lvon, Esq.
Hev. Mr. Aspland.
W. Cole, Jun.. Esq.
Dr. Cnmming
Dr. Jones.
Henry Potts, Esq.
Dr. Thackery.
Rev. Mr. Thorp.
— Warden, Esq.
— Wedge, Esq. Chichester— Dr. Forbes. F.R.S
Dr. Sanden.
C. C. Dendy, Esq. Coventry— Ar. G-egorv, Esq. Denbigh — John Madocks, Esq
Thos Evans, Esq. Dfrtv— .loseph Strutt, Esq. Devonoort — Lt.-Col. J. Hamil- ton Smith, F.R. & L.S. John Coles, Esq. EJrurm— Jos. Wedgwood, Esq. Ezeter—Rev. J. P. Jones.
J.TvrrelUEsq. Glasgoir—K. Finlav, Esq.
D. Bannalvne, Esq. Rt. Grahame, Esq. Profes.sor Mvlne. Alexander McG rigor, Esq. Charles Icniirmt, Esq.
Mr. T. Atkinson, Hon. Sec. G tamorgans}t ire —
Dr. Malkin, Cowbridge. Rev. R R. Paul, Lantwit. W. Williams, Esq., Aber- l.eruwm. HoIi/rccH— The Rev. J. Black- mail.
\KeigHei/, Yorkshire— Rev. T. 1 Dury, M.A.
Launcffsion — Key. J. Barfitt. Leamington Spa — Dr. Loudon,
M.IJ. Im*— J. Marshal?, Esq.
Benjamin Gotl, Esq.
J. Marshall, Jun., Esq. Lewes— J. W. Woollgar, Esq. Liverpool Local .issociation—
Dr. Traill Chairman.
J. Mulleneux, Esq., Treas.
Rev. W. Shepherd.
J. Ashtnn Vales, Esq. Ludlmc—T. A. Knight, Esq.,
P.H.S. Maideniiead — R.Gnolden, Esq.,
F.L.S. Manchester Local As ociation —
G. W.Wood, Esq., Chairman.
Benj. Hevwood, Esq., Treas.
T. W. Winstanlcy, Esq., Hon. Sec.
SirG.Philips, Bart., M.P. Monmouth — J. H. Moggridge,
Esq. A«a(/i— John Rowland. Esq. Neiccastte — James Losh, Esq.
Rev. W. Turner. A'(n/-;Mr(— Ab. Clarke, Esq.
T. Cooke, Jan., Esq.
R G. Kirkpatrick, Esq. Nmcimt I agnelt—.t.yi illar.Esq Nfnrton Montgomerijshire —
William Pimh, Ksq. A'ortniWi— Ht Hon. Ld.Suffield
Rich. Bacon, Esq. Pturwtuth — Geo. Harvey, Esq., F.R.S.
Rippon— RcT. H. P. Hamilton. A.M., F.R.S.. and G.S. Kev. P. Ewart, M.A. nuf/iCT— Rev. The Warden of.
Humphreys Jones, Esq. SlKfT'eld—i.'H. Abraham, Esq. Shetrsbury — R. A. Slaney
Esq., M.P. South Petherlon — John Nicho-
letts, Esq. St. A'aph—Rev. Geo. Strong. Stockport-Hrnrv Marsland. Esq.. Treosiirer Henrv Coppock, Esq., .See rarisloH— Rev. W. :.van=.
John Hundle, Esq. UVinoia— Dt. Conol Iv. The Rev William Field, a^am) nater/ord—S'n John Newport,
Bart., iM.P. JToheihampton — J. Pearson ,
Esq. norcesfei— Dr. Corbett, M.D. Di. Hastings, M.D. C. H. Hebh, Esq. Tiejftam— Thomas Edgworlli
J. E.to
Trci
, Esq., F.L.S.
Major William Llovd. yarmoulh — C. E. Rumbold, Esq., M.P. D.iwaoa Turner, Esq. rnri— Rev.J Kenrick, A.M. John Wood, Esq., .M.I-.
THOMAS COATES, Secretary, 59, Lincoln's Inn Fieldt.
CONTENTS.
Chapter I.
Page.
Of some of the Advantages resulting from judicious Planting . , 2
Chapter II.
Of the structure of Trees, and of the natural Agents which influence and govern the growth of the Plants fiom the period of germination, until the Trees arrive at full maturity ••.... 2
Chapter III.
Of the different modes of rearing Forest-Trees : — By sowing the seeds on the spot where they are to remain for Timber. By sowing the seeds on nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young trees to their timber sites. Modes of propagating, and of transplantmg, preserving, and training proper shoots or suckers produced by coppice roots or stools. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the different modes ; and of simple and mixed Plantations .... 22
Chapter IV.
Of the soils and sites most profitably employed in the Growth of Timber; intimate nature of different soils peculiarly adapted for the Growth of particular species of Forest-Trees ...... 46
Chapter V.
Of the mc^t approved modes of preparinsr different Soils for the reception of the Plants — Fencinsr, Draininsj, Ploughing, Trenching. Of the formation of rides or oarriaije-vvays into the interior of plantations. Of the best mode of coverins; these with Herbage .... 56
IV CONTENTS,
Chapter VI.
Page,
Of the culture of Plantations; Soil; Pruning; Thinning; remedips for accidental injuries, and the natural diseases of Forest-Trees. Of the Tanning afforded by the bark of different species of Trees . . 60
Chapter VII.
Of the progressive increase of size or produce of Wood in different species of Forest-Trees. Of the mode of valuing Plantations — present value — prospective value of certain individual Trees, which have attained to great maturity. Of the products of Plantations, and of the terms used by foresters to denote these products . . . . , 76
Chapter VIII.
Enumeration of the different Species of Forest-Trees ; their uses, and the method of cultivation ........ 93
Ornamental Planting 129
Index 146
PLANTING.
The subject of ])lanting' may, with propriety, be divideil into three parts: useful or forest-tree planting, ornamental or garden planting, and orchaid or fruit-tree planting. Each of these divisions of the subject, from its importance and interest, in a national point of view, as welt as to individuals, seems to demand a distinct treatise.
The first of these, forest-tree planting, is proposed for the subject of the following pages ; and the details of the theory and practice of the art discussed under the following heads :
I. Of some of the advantages resulting from judicious planting.
If. Of the structure of trees ; and of the natural agents which influence and govern the growth of the plant from the period of germination to its full maturity. Of the seeds of forest-trees ; and of the processes of vegetation.
III. Of the different modes of rearing forest-trees: — by sowing the seeds on the spot where they are to remain for timber ; of sowing the seeds on nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young plants to their timber sites ; by preserving and training proper shoots or suckers, produced by coppice roots or stools. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of these different modes. Of simple and of mixed plantations.
IV. Of the soils and sites most profitably employed in the growth of timber. Intimate nature of the different soils peculiarly adapted for the growth of particular species of forest trees.
V. Of the most approved modes of preparing different soils for the re- ception of the plants : fencing, draining, ploughing, trenching. Of the formation of rides or carriage-ways into the interior of plantations. Of the best mode of covering these with herbage.
VI. Of the culture of plantations: soil, pruning, thinning. Remedies for accidental injuries, and natural diseases of forest-trees. Seasons for felling trees. Of the tannin in the bark of different species of trees.
VII. Of the progressive increase of the size or produce of wood in different species of trees. Of the mode of valuing plantations: present value; prospective value. Of the products of plantations. Of some individual trees which have attained to great perfection. Of the terms used to denote certain products of plantations.
VIII. An enumeration of the different species : those of large growth, those of under growth tor copse wood, ornament, or shelter. Ths generic botanical characters. Their natural soils ; mode of propa- gation ; and the uses to which their timber is more generally applied.
B
PLANTING.
Chapter I.
Of some of the Advantages resulting from judicious Planting.
Judicious planting and the skilful culture of plantations combine national and private interests in an eminent degree; for, besides the real or intrinsic value of the timber or ostensible crop, with other produce of woods, available for the arts and comforts of life, judicious forest-tree planting improves the general climate of the neighbourhood, the staple of the soil, as regards the gradual accumulation of vegetable matter, affords shelter to live stock, promotes the growth of pasture and of corn crops, beautifies the landscape, and thus greatly and permanently increases the value of the fee simple of the estate and adjoining lands.
Tf we turn to those soils emphi-.ticaliy termed wastes — exposed, elevated lands, moors, bogs, and sterile sands — composing so large a portion of the British euipire, and naturally clothed by the lowest and least valuable products of the vegetable kingdom, the inferior grasses, mosses, rushes, sedges, ferns, and heaths — we find that upon them the more valuable do- mestic animals cannot exist. If we consider the reason why they are so barren, waste, and unproductive, when comj)ared with other lands not more favoured by nature, and under similar circumstances of latitude and elevation, the cause will, in many instances, be found in the want of the shelter and shade of trees, and of the ameliorating influence which plantations exercise on ungenial local climates.
'I'he essential, permanent pasture grasses cannot be established on naked exposed situations; but when assisted by the shelter of forest-trees they become permanent and jn-oduclive. Plantations siipply us with fuel, with materials for fencing, enclosing, building; corn crops, soiling plants, and root crops are obtained in succession under their genial protection. Many thousands of acres now unprofitable to the owners and to the community, might, by judicious plaiuing, be reclaimed, and rendered highly productive ; and it may be safely affirmed, that there is hardly a spot of waste land in the kingdom so barren, wliich by the exercise of skill in planting, and selection of proper species of forest-trees adapted to the soil and exposure, might not be covered with profitable plantations.
Numerous instances might be cited from diHerent parts of the kingdom where exposed and sterile lands have, by phuiting, been made capable of producing valuable arable crops and the best pasture grasses, and of rearing and fattening stock of improved breeds. This, in effect, is adding to the territorial extent of a country, to its wealth and strength, by conquest over the natural defects of local climate, soil, and exposure.
Chapter II.
Of the Structure of Trees, and of the Natural Agents which influence and govern the growth of the Plants, from the period of Germination iintil the Trees arrive at full viaiurity.
Plants being living organized bodies, a just knowledge of the functions of their vital organs, and of the principal natural agents which influence their progress of growth to maturity, will be found a useful, if not an indis- pensable assistant to guide the practical planter in rearing trees in the most
PLANTING. 8
judicious and successful manner. Tliis pnvt of the subject properly belong-s to vcgotiible physioloy-y ; and as the limits of an essay do not allow of entering into minute details, we shall here only notice tho;^e leading- features of the structure of trees, and those functions of their vital orgjans, which more immediately influence the practical operations of the planter. In con- sidering- the progress of vegetable life, physiologists have disting-uislied six ])rincipal parts of a tree : the root, the stem, the branches, the leaves^ ihejiowers, and the fniit or seed.
'i'he varieties of the root of forest-trees are characterised by the names of tap root, fibrous root, and creeping- root, these may be considered rather as indicating- particnlar states of the same organ at different stages of growth than as permanent or specific distinctions*.
The tap root is that which first appears on the vegetation of a healthy seed, and penetrates perpendicularly into the soil. From it issne nu- merous minute radicles ; and as the proper leaves are developed, lateral roots or fibres are formed and sent out from the sides of the tap I'oot, particularly at the point of junction situated between the radicle and stem.
As the plant advances in age the distinction of the tap root is lost, either by decay or by its taking a horizontal direction in common with the general mass of roots, and from which in a few years it is not to be distinguished. Other leading- roots are frequently formed from the first delicate lateral fibres, which pervade the tap root, and sometimes from its extremity when it happens to divide into parts, which always takes place when the extremity comes in contact with a richer or more genial soil, or, on the contrary extreme when it meets with obstructions in its first or early descent liom whatever cause, rocks, gravel, &c., or by injury from insects : if the tap root be taken from tlie seed leaves before the plumula appears, or before the development of the proper leaves, the young- seedling dies ; and, again, should the tap root be deprived of the seed leaves before the production and expansion of the proper leaves, no farther reproduction or growth takes place. The uses of the tap root, it will readily be perceived from these facts, are of great importance to the plant in its first stages of growth, and may be compared to the equally essential and important uses of the seminal leaves, at the same period ; but its subsequent destruction does not, as it has been supposed, influence injuriously the ultimate produce or value of the tree.
Two or any ecpial number of trees, for instance, of the same age, of the like constitution, and reared on a soil of the same nature, the one from seed on the spot, the other being transplanted from a nursery bed, without, or with a portion only of its tap-root, will give results wliich prove that trees, when transplanted at a certain age and size, and in all other respects of cultine under the same circumstances, produce timber in quantity and in quality equal, if not superior to untransplanted seedlings. Whether, therefore, to raise forest-trees from seed on the spot where they are to
* In practical planting, as well as in practical botany, the root is considered fo be that part of a plant which is hid underground, and the varieties of it are characterized ac- cording to the shape and mode of growth, as bulbous, tuberous, fibrous, or creeping; these again are susceptible of subdivision as they vary from the type. In physiology, however, the fibres or radicles are alone recognised as the roots, as it is they only which take up the food of the plant supplied by the soil.
The tuber of the turnip, potato, &c. and the bulb of the hyacinth, kc. are properly reservoirs iu which to deposit the food of the plant until wanted in season for tlie pro- duction of leaves, fiuwers, and fruit, or seed. Indeed, bulbs and tubers may be considered the plant itself in cirtain stages of its progress to maturity. A deciduous tbrest-tree in winter, when without its leaves, flowers, and seed, may be compared to a bulb or tuber, when destitute at the same time of these parts of a plant. Routs, in general, arc also distinguished in practice as to diu:atiou, being annual, biennial; and perennial.
B2
4 PLANTIXG.
produce limber, or in nursery beds, and afterwards transplant them, is a question of mere expediency.
Wliere seeds of the kinds of forest-trees desired can be had at httle cost; where the soil is friable, is in a ]ierfectly clean state, and consequently adapted to the plough culture ; where such animals as are destructive of seeds and young- plants, as mice, rooks, and game, particularly hares and rabbits, are not likely to be greatly destructive; and where the cost of labour is not comparatively high, then sowing the seeds of forest trees on their timber sites, may be the best practice and be adopted with success. But where, on the contrary, these obstructions exist or are probable, transplanting select healthy trees from nursery beds, though the plants be deprived of their tap roots, will be found more economical in the first outlay, and in the subsequent cost of culture; and the most profitable, as affording a quicker return of profit in prunings and thinnings, and will produce timber in a less number of years from the time of occupying the land for that purpose.
The fibrous root is that which is most common to forest-trees. It consists of lumierous divisions or bundles of fibres, furnished with minute spongeols, and nearly representing the divisions or ramifications of the large and smaller branches and buds of the tree.
The variety of creeping root is chiefly confined to those trees which have the roots running horizontally, as in some species of poplar, elm, &c.
The organization of the root is similar to that of the stem and branches, from the j^Hh which forms the centre of the body to the epidermis which covers the bark. Each part may be traced in uninterrupted continuation, from the minutest radicle of the root to the extremity of the smallest branch or bud of a tree.
When a root of whatever kind is divided, its horizontal section exhibits three distinct jjarts, the ]>ith, i\\e %cood, dAu\ the bark ; and a transverse section of the iri/nk of the tree, or of a branch, exhibits exactly the same parts.
The ])ilh forms the central circle of a i-oot, stem, or branch : it is a cellular membraneous body of a silvery white colour. As the tree or root advances in age and the timber is perfected, the pith gradually loses its original spongy texture, the cells of which it is composed becoming more and more compressed until all appearance of it is lost in the wood, excepting that the concentric circle which it occupied appears whiter than the other annual layers. But although the pith thus disappears in the old, it still continues in progress with the young wood of the root, stem, or branches ; and the periodical fibres or radicles of the former, and the buds or embryo branches of the latter, will on examination be found to originate from it. When a branch is pruned off close to a stem wherein, from age, the pith has disappeared for some distance above and altogether from below the origin of the amputated branch, no reproduction of shoots takes place in whatever season the pruning may be performed, but should a portion of the branch be left to the stem, from that buds and shoots will spring. It also happens that when a branch is pruned off close to a young healthy stem containing perfect and active pith, before or shortly after the completion of the midsummer growth, which usually takes place before the end of July, no reproduction of shoots follows the operation, but the efforts of the vital functions of the plant appear to be wholly directed to cover the wound with fresh bark. Should the pruning, however, be performed in spring before or shortly after the expansion of the leaves, or after their fall in autumn, a reproduction of buds and shoots ensues, and a .slower progress in the formation of new bark is apparent.
PLANTING. 5
The presence of leaves is essential to the growth of buds and branches, and consequently to that of the pith in these and in the roots ; but the leaves are not otherwise necessary to the formation and growth of the fibres or radicles of the root, as these are produced in abundance when the plant or tree is leafless, and even during winter when the ground is covered, with frost and snow, the reservoir of nourishment in the pith being probably sufficient for that purpose.
From these facts and others which might be brought forward, it is clear that the uses of the pith in the formation of buds in the branches of the tree, and of fibres or radicles in the root, and in the supjiort of these during the first stages of growth, are analogous to the important functions of the seed leaves in the first stages of growth of the seedling plant. The pith of a radicle or fibre may readily be traced into that of the root, and the same is precisely the case in a branch with relation to the stem of the tree. The respective uses of these organs are only for the first and early stages of growth ; and, after that, they may be lost without any apparent injury to the further progress of the parts in question: the cotyledons dry up and fall away as the healthy progress of the roots and leaves advances, and the pith disappears, or its identity is lost in the wood, as that part of the structure which surrounds it approximates to maturity. *
The wood stands next in order to the pith, it is formed of indurated vegetable fibre, and occupies the space between the pith and the bark ; it constitutes the bulk and strength of the subject. The yearly growth or increase of the wood is defined by circular lines or concentric layers clear to common observation in a transverse section of any root, branch, or stem. The discriminating characters of the wood being more obvious in the stem, than in the root or rootlets, we shall consider it more particularly when mentioning the stem.
The bark covers the wood in every part of the tree, and is the most important organ of vegetable life, for the pith may be lessened, the wood may be partially or even wholly taken away, and, the leaves may be stripped off, and yet the tree may recover, but when deprived of its bark, the root, stem, or branch of a tree dies. It is therefore of the greatest importance to the practical planter, that the bark of the roots and of the exposed system of his plants should be preserved free from the slightest injury.
The bark when divided horizontally shews three distinct parts, the liber, or inner bark, which lies next to the wood ; the cellular tissue, or paren- chyma, which is distinguished in the bark of the exposed system of the plant by its fine green colour, but which is colourless in the bark of the root ; and, lastly, the epidermis, or outer bark, which is the universal covering of every part of a tree.
* A scion grafted on a stock, and a bud separated from its parent shoot and inserted into the bark of another tree, may at first sight offer proofs going to invaU<late the opinion of the important uses of the pith in the formation of buds and fibres ; but before the scion and the bud are taken off; or are in a fit state for the purposes of budding and grafting, the pith of the parent stock has already performed its offices. The important experiments of Mr, Knight on this subject prove that the pith may be removed in part withoiit effiicting the general health of the tree, just as the cotyledons may be removed from the young plant after having established its root and stem, with a continuation of pith to originate new buds, or embryo branches and radicles. We often meet with roots, which from severe injuries by mutilation at an advanced age of the tree, or by the injurious effects of a damp ungenial soil at an earlier period of growth, have lost the entire substance of the pith and wood, and present the appearance of a hollow tube, have yet young fibres or radicles issuing from their sides and continued as in roots where the pith and wood is perfect ; on examination, however, these young fibres may be traced through the bark into the hollow of the root, demonstrating the origin of the radicle from the pith.
6 PLANTING.
On youns; slioots and stems the epidermis appears membraneons, or as a thin transparent membrane without vessels; but late researches, aided by powerful glasses, have shewn that it is partially furnished with minute retiform vessels, particularly in the leaves.
When casually displaced off young shoots it is reproduced with little apparent injury to the part, unless it happen on the annual parts of the tree, as the leaves and flowers. In old stems and branches the epidermis often attains to considerable thickness, becominp; hard, rough, or granulated, as seen in tlie trunk of elm, oak, and most kinds of forest-trees, and in the trunk of the apricot, pear, &c., among fruit-trees. When in this latter state, the epidermis may be removed without injury, and, in some instances, it has been cleared away from these fruit trees with evident advantage to their general health and fertility *.
The parenchyma is composed of hexagonal cells, containing juice, which in the stems and branches is of a green colour, even when covered by a thick indurated epidermis; but in the root, as before alluded to, the juice of the parenchyma is colourless.
The inner bark consists of cortical layers, constituted of longitudinal fibres or vessels, which are supposed to return the sap from the leaves after their undergoing certain changes by the action of solar light, heat, and air. The medullary rays which pass from the pith to the cellular tex- tures of the inner bark and parenchyma in a horizontal direction, appear to be the medium of a lateral intercommunication of sap and air throughout the entire structure of the treef.
The green colour of the 'parenchyma depends on the exposure of its epidermis to light and air; for when a portion of the stem of a tree is ex- cluded from light, as is sometimes done in planting when the tree is placed deeper in the soil than it stood before transplanting, the green colour is destroyed in that part of it which is covered with the soil, and which in course of time assumes the colour of the root ; and, if much moisture exists in the soil and the tree be not young, the bark so covered decays, and the tree dies. Should the soil be dry, however, and the plant
* In 1813 the following trial was made to ascertain the efFects of removing the rough, hardened epidermis from the trunk and limbs of a very large and aged Crassane pear- tree. The tree was trained horizontally on a v/est wall, the branches extended twenty feet on each side of the large trunk in the most perfect order. The stem was cleared of the roiifh epidermis entirely, and the branches on one side also were treated in like man- ner. The branches which extended on the other side of the stem, had only every alternate branch stripped of the rough, hardened epidermis. Previously to this, the tree had for many years ceased to bear fruit, except occasionally one or two at the extremities of the upper branches. The first season after the above operation, the foliage assumed a more healthy appearance on the decorticated branches, and in the coui-se of the second year many fruit buds were formed, which afterwards produced fruit of very good quality. The branches which were suffered to remain with their hardened epidermis, continued barren. Adjoining to this tree was another of the same species, apparently of the like age and of nearly the same dimensions. In this instance every second branch was pruned off near to the stem, and young grafts of the crassane, colmar, brown beurrie, and St. Germain, united to stumps of those branches respectively. These grafts all succeeded so well that in four years from the period of grafting they had nearly attained to the length of the old branches, and produced full crops of fruit of a very superior quality. The old branches, which had purpjsely been left, remained in the same barren state as before. The branches produced from the grafts were superior at the end of thetifth year, in regard to health and produce, to the decorticated branches ; and these last were in a like pro- portion superior to those branches which were left untouched. These facts go to prove clearly that the thickening and hardening of the epidermis has a very considerable in- fluence on the health and fertility of a tree.
t It IS contrary to every known law of the vital power, to suppose that any part of tli Btructure of a living organized body can resist decomposition or decay, if it be cut ol from a reciprocal commimicatiou witlj the circulating vital juices,
off
PLANTING. "
young-, the bark in question is jvradually converted into root-bark ; during* this conversion of the stem-bark to that of the root, the plant advances but Httle, if any, in growth, but exhibits an unhealthy appearance by the paleness of its leaves, and the weak growth of slioots. The same effects are in a great degree observable from the opposite error, of planting too shallow, which is when a portion of the root nearest to the stem is left above the g-round. This exposed portion of the rool-bark in time gains the green colour in its parenchyma ; and although no portion of it is ever found to decay, as in the former instance, yet, for a time, the plant makes but little progress in the growth of wood : if a fruit tree, the effect appears to be to increase the formation of fruit buds, and to stimulate the functions of the tree to bear fruit. It may not be devoid of interest to re- mark here, that this is a more efficacious mode of inducing a free grow- ing though barren fruit-tree to bear fruit, than any of those recommended for that purpose, such as ringing, or placing an iron ring round a branch to prevent the annual increase of bark on the space occupied by the ring, cutting the bark in the manner of a circular incision of a branch, dividing the roots, and by reversing the natural direction of the branches. It may be unnecessary to add, that the above facts point out the importance of planting every tree not deeper in the ground, nor farther out of the surface, than the root occupied in the soil previous to transplantation ; most essen- tially when the produce of wood or of timber is the primary object desired.
The steiti, trunk, or bole, constitutes the principal body of a forest-tree. It is the medium of communication between the root and the branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit or seed. By the exercise of this function it ob- tains its vearly increase of substance, marked by the white circular lines apparent on the surface of a transverse section of the stem of every species of tbrest-tree. By counting the number of these circles the age of the tree may with certainty be determined.
It was before observed that the structure of the root was similar to that of the organization of the stem and branches ; but a more particular notice of the constitution of the wood was referred to this place.
A close examination * of a horizontal section of the wood of a trunk or branch of a tree, will exhibit two very distinct appearances.
1st. A series of white and shining laminee, which radiate from the pith to the bark (_/§-. b, ])t. These generally straight, or sometimes interrupted, lines are termed the silver grain or medullary rays of the wood. These vary as to size and arrangement, termed primary or secondary rays, con- tinued in one straight line from the pilh to the bark, or interrupted and broken in the course of their direction, according to the species of tree which affords the wood in question. They appear to be composed of cellular tissue, and to originate from the pitii, or, in a word, are a linear lateral extension of that organ. " These medullary rays are elastic and con- tractile, as is evident to every one who has observed the effects of the extremes of dry and of moist weather on the section of a felled tree.
2d. A series of concentric layers, or circles, termed the spurious grain. These consist of tubular vessels of smaller or larger diameters, arranged in lines or groups varying according to the genus and species of the tree to which the wood belongs.
* With a common or four-power microscope. A tliiu slice of the siihstance is, perhaps, the most conveuiont for examining. When placed nudcr a high magnifying p.iwer the beauty, order, and arrangement of the tubular and cellular texture, will reward the observer.
f these should be examined with a magnifying glass, for the texture of the different woods exhibited will thereby be more satisfactorily compared with the descnptious which accompany them.
PL \NT1NG.
An examination of many (liferent kinds of wood proves that these characters of distinction are constant, and, therefore, afford a certain means of distino-uishing the wood or timber of one .species of tree from that of another.
'J'he followin": discriminating characters of the woods of the principal timber trees will be found constant: —
The wood of the elm (fg. a) is distinguished by having the medullary rays, or silver grain, equal, and not crowded. 'J'he concentric layers are composed of a series of cells of nearly unequal diameter, arranged in an almost simple curved line. The spaces between the layers are furnished with cells of a smaller diameter, and rather thinly scattered over the surface.
The oak {Jig- b) has two series of medullary rays ; the primary ones are large and strongly marked, distant from each other, and are uninter- rupted in their course from the pith to the bark (^g. b, 1). The secondary rays are numerous between the primary, bist not crowded.
The concentric layers, or circles, are distinguished by the arrangement of the cells. They are grouped in somewhat triangular masses, forming a wavy circular outline. The structure of the concentric layers or annual rings, distinguish at once with certainty the wood of the oak from that of the chestnut, with which it has often been confounded.
The wood of the ash (c) has the places of those rays so prominent on the wood of the oak, supplied by twin rays (1) placed in wide intervals over the surface, and between these double rays are smaller ones, placed in regular order. In the narrow spaces between the individuals which con- stitute the twin rays are wanting those apparent remains of the cellular texture which are so remarkable in the spaces between the single rays.
The wood of the beech (fZ) has the primary" rays (2) dispersed pretty regularly over the surface of a horizontal section of the wood ; the secon- dary rays are not continuous from the pith to the bark, but interrupted,
PLANTING.
and exhibit a numerous series of fraf;ments of rays, filling- up the spaces between the primary ones, obvious to the naked eye, and renderinf^ the silver grain, as it is called, of the beech very distinct from any other kind of wood.
The wood of the Spanish or sweet chestnut (e) has often been con- founded with that of the oak ; but its characters of distinction are very obvious. It agrees with the oak in having; the secondary rays equally disposed, almost straight, and, though close to each other, yet not crowded as in the elm and beech ; itditiers, in the primary rays being- scarcely to be distinguished from the secondary, whilst in the oak these are prominent and obvious to the naked eye on the slightest inspection. The concentric layers are regularly curved, whilst in the oak they are strikingly waved. The mouths of the tubular vessels, which constitute so obvious a part of these annual rings, or layers, are disposed in triangular masses in the oak ; on the contrary, in the chestnut they are in regular order.
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,0^^^§§tf
The hornbeam (/) has the rays of the wood nearly equal, but may readily be distinguished from that of the beech, to which it bears the greatest resemblance, by the simple arrangement of the tubular structure accompanying the concentric layers, which in the hornbeam are distant and oval shaped, the narrow sides pointing to the pith and to the bark ; in the beech they are circular shaped, more numerous, and equal sized.
The birch (g) has all the medullary rays nearly equal, arranged closely, and having the concentric circles minute, but marked with a row of equal cells.
The horse chestnut (h) has all the rays very minute, few of them np- paiently continuous, but interrupted, and in substance varying m breadth. The cells are numerous and minute.
Alder (i) has the wood with lar-e primary rays, thmly arranged, but in nearly regular order; the secondary rays are slender, numerous, and interrupted.^ The cells of the concentric layers are nearly . regular. Ihe spaces between the rays are crowded with cells.
(10
PLANTING.
Oriental plane (A-) has the pnmary rays regular but closely arranged; they are somewhat wavy ; the cellular texture of the concentric layers but slightly marked.
The sycamore (/) in texture approximates to the plane: still, however, it is very distinct in its straight lined rays, which are very minute or slender. The cellular texture is composed of such minute ceils as scarcely to be perceptible under a four power microscope ; these cells are, however, very numerous.
The poplar (???) has the wood composed of rays so slender as not to be obvious to the naked eye. The concentric layers are composed of ex- ceedingly minute cells. This wood is extremely porous ; the cells of which it is composed are so numerous that a very thin slice of the wood, taken horizontally, exhibits the appearance of the finest possible open net-work.
Common acacia, or locust, (?i) has wood which bears some resemblance to that of the oak ; but it is very distinct from any other kind mentioned here ; it wants the distinct primary rays so prominent in the oak, the rays of the locust being all nearly of equal breadth, and as slender as the secondary rays of the oak ; here they are somewhat wavy. The cellular or tubular structure is also very different from that of the oak, being
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PLANTING. ai
arrant^ed in more regular order wliere they mark the concentric layers, and the spaces between the rays are fiirnislied witli many cells irregularly scattered over, of a size equal to those marking tlie concentric layers.
The wood of the fir (o) is distinguished from all others here enumerated by having very prominent coloured concentric layers, arranged very regularly throughout ; and the cellular texture, though composed of cells sulhciently large to be seen with the naked eye, is not to be distinguished without very close observation.
The lime (p) lias very slender equal rays and a minute celhilar texture pervading the whole body of the wood. Tlie concentric layers are scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. It may be compared to the wood of the poplar, but the network-like arrangement of the cellular texture is not so obvious in the former ; the presence of the rays in the lime distin- guishes it at once irom the poplar.
mm
The wood of the laburnum (7) is distinguished by its minute, regular, uninterrupted medullary rays, and by the broken beaded longitudinal lines of the tubular structure.
These characters of distinction being permanent and constant in all these ditFerent kinds of wood, will be found useful in cases where it is desirable to ascertain the kind of timber which may have continued sound for the longest period in any particular building or situation, and the contrary where its duration has been limited*.
' The leaves constitute one of the most important conservative organs of vegetable growth ; for on the free and healthy exercise of their functions depend the life of the plant and its progress to maturity, to say nothing of that universal interest and pleasure which is afforded by the diversified beauty of their forms and tints. The green colour of the leaves of trees has been proved, beyond all doubt, to depend chiefly on the Influence of solar light and atmospheric air. Almost every distinct species and variety of plant, in its most healthy state, has its own peculiar shade of green : the yellovv-green tint of the foliage of a healthy larch, would in that of a pine, spruce, fir, and cedar of Lebanon, be certain indications of disease and decay. The dissection of a leaf shews that it is composed of vessels, cellular tissue, and an epidermis. The green part of a leaf is, in fact, a continuation of the parenchyma of the bark before mentioned ; and the mid- rib and nerves of the leaf are a continuation of the conducting and returning sap, and air vessels of the bark and alburnum. The under and upper surfaces of the leaf may be separated in an entire state from each other. These appear to perform different offices ; the under surface is provided
* It \voiild be of the greatest utility to the interests of plautiup^ were registers kept of the kinds of timber used in particular buildings; also the age of the tree which pro- duced it, when felled, and the soil, and situation or climate, in which the trees were reared. Posterity would be grateful for such records of facts.
12 PLANTING.
with numerous minute pores by which moisture and air are emitted and absorbed. The upper surface of the leaves of trees is supposed to be destitute of pores: this part always turns its surface to solar light*.
The leaves of forest-trees are either simple or compound; simple as in the common beech, and compound as in the ash, where several smaller leaves are attached to one foot-stalk. The foot-stalk of the leaf is ter- minated by a gland, which in deciduous trees, or those that shed their leaves in autumn, becomes indurated, and at that season readily separates from the branch or twig\
The midrib of the leaf is merely a continuation of the footstalk ; this divides the body of the leaf longitudinally ; it may be compared to the stem of the tree, for from it issue branches of various sizes, dispersed through the substance of the leaf in order resembling those of the tree. The first or largest series of fibres issue from the sides of the midrib, either in an opposite direction, alternately, or irregularly, according to the species of tree; from these secondary branches proceed a third and a fourth series, not however in such straight lines as in the former, but curving and anastomising, or opening into each other in all directions, and, in this last particular, they have a resemblance to the disposition of the minute blood- vessels of the animal economy. The difference in the disposition of the first and secondary fibres of the leaves is so constant in the individual plants of different natural genera, that it affords a very clear discriminating character by wliich they maybe distinguished from each other, in the same manner as the wood of different kinds are identified by the concentric circles and medullary rays before mentioned.
The leaves of the oak (Quercus) have the secondary fibres few in num- ber, and curved towards the sinuosities of the leaf; the third series of fibres are very prominently marked, and the fourth series extremely minute. The leaves of the Spanish chestnut (Castanea), belonging to the same natural order but to a different genus, have the secondary fibres nearly straight, the third series very numerous and curved alternately, the fourth series nearly as large as the third, and if we examine and compare the wood of the oak and the chestnut, we shall find equally marked distinctions between them.
In the beech (Fagus), which likewise belongs to the same natural order, but to a different genus to the above, the secondary fibres of the leaves are very prominent, and the third and fourth series minute, and of nearly an equal size, and the texture of the wood is equally distinct from that of the oak and the chestnut.
That the leaves of plants during the day emit oxygen gas or vital air, and absorb carbonic acid gas or impure air, has long since been jjroved. In the night or during darkness, vital air is absorbed by plants and un- healthy air emitted, and it would appear by various experiments on this important point, that when the supply of carbonic acid gas from the air and soil is greater, the emission of oxygen gas by the leaves during their exjiosure to siinshine is also greater, hence another cause of healthy plan- tations improving the climate of their neighbourhood besides that of shelter.
The leaves of trees being the great organs for elaborating the sap and fitting it to become converted into all and every product of the tree, whether timber, bark, seeds or fruit, render the facts relating to their structure and fimctions of higii interest to the planter and forester; for they point out tiie danger of lessening their muuber beyond a certain extent, as in excessive
* Fur a minute and interesting account of the varied forms of these pores, and of tlieir uumber on difierent plauts, see Part I. ' of Vegetable Physiolog\,' published in the Library of Useful Knowledge.
PLANTING. 13
prnnincr, or of siifTcrin^ the leaves 1o be crouded (oo mucli, so as to ex- cliule a free admission of lig^lit and air, as happens when trees are planted too close ton;ether, and judicious thiiuiing- and pruning- are nep^lected.
The seeds of forest trees. Seed consists of three principal parts: 1st. The cotyledons, or seed leaves; — 2dly. The rostel, or first radicle, which descends into the soil, and becomes the root of the tree; — 3dly. The pli/77ii/la, which ascends, and becomes the stem, bole, or trunk. The rostel and plumula are closely united in the seed, and there constitute what is termed the p,erm, or embryo of the future tree. This is an essential part of the seed, for however healthy in appearance the seed may appear, if the germ be injured, the seed never vegetates. The cotyledons or seed- leaves contain a farinaceous substance which is the source of nourishment to the radicle, until established in the soil and fitted to perform its proper office in the development of the stem and proper leaves of the plant. It may be useful in this place to mention, that the seeds of forest trees may be classed under the following- heads or general characters, indicating peculiar points to be observed in the practice of sowing them.
1st. Seeds farinaceous, and covered with shells, ?int-seeds. To this class belong the oak, Spanish-chestnut, beech, horse-chestnut, walnut, hazel, hornbeam, plane, sycamore, maple, and ash, to which may be added, though not strictly belonging to the group, the birch, alder, and lime. The first seven kinds, from the farina they contain, are least adapted for keeping out of the soil, and the same cause renders them more difficult to pre- serve in the soil when sown, by inducing the attacks of mice, birds, and other vermin. The spring is considered the best season for sowing, and the seeds must therefore be preserved carefully during winter; the most approved mode is to spread them out in their layers on a cool dry floor, but previously to this they should be thoroughly dried by the sun and air. Tlie smaller kinds of seeds after being sufficiently dried, may be kept in a .smaller space. The seed of the oriental plane (Platanus orientalis), however, succeed best when sown immediately as it is perfected. When sown, these seeds require different degrees of covering in the soil. The larger seeds, as those of the chestnut, oak, &c., should be covered with two inches of mould ; for the smaller seeds of the plane, sycamore, hornbeam, maple, and ash, it will be proper to mix with them sand, in quantity about equal to their bulk, placing the mixture on the ground a foot in thickness, and covering that with an inch thick of mould. The birch may be sown im- mediately as it is taken from the tree, or preserved in the seed-loft until spring. When sown, the birch is generally covered half an inch with mould, the former seeds with one inch.
2nd. Hard seeds, or stones covered with a pulpy fruit. The proper covering of these seeds is so hard, as to have acquired for them the name of stones. In this class are the cherry-tree, mountain-ash, whitebeam, yew, holly, pear, crab, and thorn. With the exception of the cherry-tree, all these remain in the soil one or two years before they vegetate. To obviate the irregular vegetation of these seeds, which is attended with loss of time and inconvenience, the practice of preparing them for sowing by what is called pitting has been adopted ; this is done in the manner above mentioned for the hornbeam, plane, &c. ; but as one, two, or even three years in the pit or preparatory bed are wanted for some of these seeds, it is requisite after they have lain a certain time in the pit to uncover them and turn them over, so as to assist in the separation of the pulp from the stones. Holly berries require one year at least to prepare them for sow- ing; mountain ash, whitebeam, yew, and ash lie one year; the cherry readily vegetates in the same spring in which it is sown.
14 PLANTING
3rcl. Lcgv?7nno7is, or bccni seeds. These, as rep;ards forest-trees are confined to the common acacia, or !ocnst-tree {Robinia Psa/d-Jcacia), the olutinous Robinia (Robinia viscosa), and the laburnum. These seeds veffetate freely when sown from the tree, but it is the jjeneral practice to preserve them until spring in a dry, cool place. \Vhen sown, they require to be covered with about three-fourths of an inch of mould. If sown too thickly, that is, less than one inch seed from seed, the plants soon injure one another and become diseased.
4th. Light seeds. Under this head we enumerate smooth elm, and mountain elm, the poplar, and the tree willows. These seeds being- light, and separating freely from the tree when ripe, require care in collecting, as otherwise they are liable to be dispersed and carried away by the wind. They vegetate quickly and may 1)e sown so soon as they are ripe. Spring however is preferred, as tender seedling plants are subject to injury from severe weather in w inter. They should be covered to the depth of one fourth of an inch of fine sifted mould.
5lh. Resi}wvs seeds are those of coniferous or fir-trees. Their vegeta- tive power when cleaned or separated from the cones, is not to be pre- served if they are kept out of the ground for any considerable length of time, and they require particular care in sowing. The soil of the beds ought to be of a light sandy nature, enriched with the vegetable mould of decayed tree leaves, or well decomposed dung. If a proper cpiantity of the former manure be added, and well incorporated with the sandy loam above described, it will bring that soil to a suitable texture. The seeds are borne in cones furnished with scales of a hard woody consistence. The cones of the larch with much difficulty part from the seeds, and various means have been adopted to effect that object. The best is that of first opening the cone, or dividing it lengthways into two or four parts, then placing them on a kiln and drying by a very gentle heat until the valves b( "in to open, when they should be taken to a proper floor and threshed : the seeds may then be separated by a sieve. The cones of the Scotch tir and the spruce require also the aid of the kiln ; but the seeds part from the cones easily, and the splitting of the cones is superfluous. The spring* is the best season for sowing these seeds. The soil of the seedling beds should be in as finely a pulverised state as possible for their reception.
The seed of the stone ])ine requires to be covered with one and a quarter inches of soil, the silver fir and jjinaster with one inch, the Weymouth pine with three-fourths of an inch; the Scotch fir, Norway spruce, bahu of Gilead, and cedar of Lebanon with half an inch of soil. The cedar of I^^banon is best sown in boxes placed in a warm or sheltered situation. The larch should not be sown so deep; a covering of a quarter of an inch of soil suffices. The white, red, and American sjiruce firs, having smaller seeds, require a slighter covering of a fifth of an inch deep, and the tex- ture of the soil should be even lighter, which can be easily effected by adding sand or a larger proportion of the mould of decayed tree leaves. Heath soil, or bog soil, containing a good proportion of fine siliceous sand, has been found very congenial to the vegetation of these seeds. f Shading
* If the winter happened to be favourable, and the depredations of vemiin were com- pletely prevented, the balance would be in favour of sewing- the teeds of the fir and pine in autumn, and which would be the case also with every description of forest-tree seeds, the hard or stone seeds probably excepted.
-j- This description of suil has been erroncouslj' supposed to be injurious to transplanted firs, and implements are used to remove the heath soil from the intended sites of the plants, in order ihat the roots may be inserted iu the subsoil of gravel or sand, of which the sub- soil almost always consists. The roots of the heath while alive are the cause of injury, not the uature of the soil.
PLANTING. 15
from hot sunshine is liighly beneficial to them, indeed, indispensable in some states of the weather, for the thin coverinn; of soil vviiicii is neces- sarily allowed them is soon affected by tlie action of the sun's rays, and s\id(len droup;ht quickly destroys the tender seedlings. The thickness in which the seeds should be sown, according to the respective kinds, is on an average from three to four on a square inch, so that the plants when produced stand not nearer to each other than that scale of distances.
The artificial fine state of culture of the soil in the seedbeds, rendering it less retentive of the due degree of moisture than is required, the beds should be consolidated before and after the seeds are sown, either by the use of a roller, or by the spade.
In concluding this practical view of the structure of forest trees, and of those natural agents, which obviously influence the growth of plants, it may be useful to take a similar view of the process of vegetation. A perfect and healthy seed consists of an outer covering, cotyledons, radicle, and ])lumula. When sown in perfectly dry earth, it remains unchanged ; if in an excess of moisture, it loses its vegetative powers and decays : in neither case it vegetates. When the temperature of the soil is below a certain point, all vegetation is suspended. Should the soil and the temperature be per- fectly favourable to vegetation, yet if the seed be not planted shallow enough to be within the influence of atmospherical air, no vegetation takes place. Different species of seeds require different degrees of moisture, temperatvu'e, and atmospheric influence, to render tlieir vegetation the most healthy and perfect. The natural constitution of different soils, as regards their respective properties of retaining or easily parting- with moisture ; the proper season of sowing", as regards the temperature of the soil and the atmospliere, by whatever local causes subject to be influenced; and the re- S])ective depths to which the seeds should be deposited in the ground, as above mentioned, apply directly to the skill of the cultivator to aid, modify, and assist these primary essential agents of vegetation ; and on the right adjustment of these depend the success and just reward of the planter in this first stage of the process of his art.
In whatever position the seed is placed, the radicle first biu'sts the cover- ing, and takes a downward direction into the soil, where it becomes fixed, and protrudes, at right angles from its sides, numerous rootlets, which in their turn emit others ; then, and not till then, the cotyledons rise above the surface and expand, shewing tlie plumula or bud of the stem, which now advances in growth and unfolds the proper leaves. After the leaves are fully expanded, the communication of the pith with the buds, formed or forming, at the base of each leaf-stalk in the angle made by that and the stem, may be traced. The loss of either of these organs of the seed at an earlier period would have prevented farther growth ; for if the cotyledons had been seriously injured or taken away, the radicle and plumula would have died; if the radicle had been removed, the same effect would have followed; or if the plumula had been taken away, the plant would have made no farther progress. But as soon as the formation of the germ of buds is effected, as now stated, the cotyledons may be removed; the sum- mit of the stem and the lower extremity of the radicle may be taken away, and the plant will reproduce others. It is during the previous stage of growth that the attacks of insects prove so fatal to seedling plants, and re- quire the utmost care of the planter; and hence also the greater care and attention that is demanded in the preparation of the soil for seeds than for the reception of transplanted trees. Tliis also points out the danger of injury to the vegetating seeds, by disturbing the seed beds before the
Ifi PLANriNG.
plants are perfected. It is in these early staG:es of (growth, that the foundation is laid for the future healtli, beauty, and vigorous growth of the tree. Tlie fibres of the root, with the minute spono-eols before mentioned, now imbibe and send uj) the food of the plant to the leaves, where beina: s])read out to the influence of solar light, lieat, and atmospheric air, it is elaborated and returned through the foot-stalk by the longitudinal vessels of the inner bark to the root, depositing^ in its course, or in conjunction with the original fluids of the ceUular texture forming, the various sub- stances and secretions peculiar to the tree. That tlie sap ascends by the longitijdinal vessels of the alburnum, saj), or soft wood, and descends by those of the inner bark, seems to be proved by the experiments of Mr. Knight and others, who have more intimately investigated this part of the subject. That a lateral movement of the sap goes on at the same time, and in conjunction with the ascending and descending movement, appears equally certain*. Every individual leaf of a tree is furnished with its own particular series of vessels for the course of the sap, and not only prejiares and elaborates the sap lor the increase of substance of its own branch, but also for that of the parent stem and root. Hence it is that trees re- "•ularly furnished with branches from the base upwards have more taper- in"- stems, than trees with branches confined to the upper half of the stem, the increase being equal, from the point where the branches begin, down- wards to the root; or, in other words, whatever length of stem from the root upwards is destitute of branches, tliat part of it from the period of losing them increases in size equally throughoutf. Without a just knowledge of this principle in the economy of vegetable life, the important process of pruning in the culture of forest-trees cannot safely be performed by the forester: that the sap never ceases wholly to move | is evident in the in- crease of the roots and buds during winter when the plant is leafless; but its ascent is particularly distinguished for greater force and activity at two periods of the year, spring and midsummer. The ascent in spring is the strono-est,'and continues until midsummer, gradually diminishing in force as the new branches and leaves are perfected. This generally takes place about the beginning of July, when an apparent cessation of asccnd- in<v motion in the sap iinmediately succeeds, and continues usually for the
* The sap in ascending is farthest removed from the action of solar lif^ht, heat, and atmospheric air, in descending it is nearest to these important agents, receiving their im- pulse tlirongh the medium of the green cellular tissue or parenchyma. The offices of this organ in transpiration and inhalation, may be compared to that of an universal leaf cover- ing every part of the stem and branches of a tree.
f This fact may be demonstrated most conveniently, by pruning the lateral branches ofl' quite close to the stem of a young fast-growing tree, leaving a certain number to form a top, and to keep up the growth of the plant.
I The term circulation has been objected to as improper for describing the course of the movement of the sap in plants ; because a point from wlience the movement begins, and to which it again returns (as for instance, the heart in animals,) has not been discovered in plants ; for in these the sap is periodically exhausted in the increase of the substance of the tree, and its place periodically supplied from the soil to the spongeols of the roots. The term periodical is here mulcrstood to apply to the effiicts observed, by the practical planter, of the spring growth, midsummer growth, and leafless or winter cessation of growth, an- nually in the progress of every forest-tree. That the roots of these plants (as long as their vital powers continue to act) continue, without intermission, to imbibe fluid or pabu- lum from the soil, however small in tpiantity that may be at certain seasons, seems highly probable ; as also that a movement or circulation of the fluids of the cellular texture, how- ever languid it may be, exists even in the leafless tree. But there are plants, such as the hyacinth, potatoe, onion, kc. &c., which remain two or three months annually during their progress of existence, without a possibility of imbibing anything whatever by their roots, rootlets, or spongeols, inasmuch as during that period of their existence they are destitute of these organs wherewith to imbibe.
PLANTING. 17
space of afortniglit. or three weeks, accordiiii^ to the aj^e of the plant and the state of the weather. A second ascent of the sap, and growth of shoots now take place, but with diminished vigour ; unless from accident, dis- ease, or unfavourable weather, the spring growth has been checked, and the first flow of sap prevented from being exhausted in the production of branches, leaves, and blossoms. It is worthy of remark, that those shoots which form fruit, flower, or seed buds, have seldom if ever any second growth ; but remain without increasing in length until the next spring. The midsummer growth is almost always confined to those branches which carry wood buds only. After the second growth is completed, the effects of tlie descending sap in the formation of new bark and wood is very apparent in the healing up of wounded parts of the stem and branches, which now proceeds with more activity than during any other period of the year. Branches pruned off after the midsummer flow, seldom are followed by shoots from the edges of the wounds caused by their removal, which always happens, more or less, when pruning is performed on free growing trees after the fall of the leaf, and before the full development of the spring shoots and leaves : it is to be observed, however, that the repro- duction of branches froni the edges of a wound is greatly assisted by leaving a portion of the branch or shoot, or its parent branch or stem, but impeded when a branch is pruned off close to the stem. What was before stated regarding the offices of the pith and medullary rays in originating the buds of shoots and branches, will be confirmed by these facts. Food of Plants. — Those substances which the roots of plants take up from the soil, and those which the leaves or green system of the plant inhale or imbibe from atmospheric air are comprehended under the name of the food of plants. This part of vegetable physiology has long engaged the anxious inquiries of science, as well as of practice. The question is one of much importance, inasmuch as a perfect knowledge of what constitutes the food of plants generally, and individually, would vvitli unerring certainty point out the means of fertilizing soils, defective in any respect for bringing to perfection the species of tree most desired ; would indicate at the same time the most proper substances to be used with the greatest advantage, the exact proportions in which they should be mixed, the mode of applying them, and the best process of manual culture or working the soil, for elaborating and preparing them for absorption by the roots. Of late years great progress has been made in the investigation of this part of vegetable physiology ; the labours of T. A. Knight and M. Dutrouhet are, in particular, highly valuable, but much still is required before even an approximation to the solution of this important question can be attained. The structure of the root shewed us that whatever kinds of substances are conveyed or by it introduced into the plant, such substances must be in a minute state of division, or dissolved in water. The analysis of a soil demonstrates the soluble substances it contains. These have been found to be chiefly vegetable extract, combined with smaller proportions of a few of the neutral salts, as sulphates of potash and lime, muriates of lime and soda, or common salt; this last, in every instance of our own individual experience, is always in a larger proportion to the other saline matters, and is never altogether wanting, as is the case sometimes with the sulphates and muriates of lime. The vegetable extract, except as regards its presence in poor clays and siliceous sands*, is always in a
* The soils here alluded to, the results of whose chemical examinations have led to the above conclusions, were of almost every kind or description to be met with in practice, comprising the various degrees of fertility intermediate between the poorest sand and the most tenacious clay.
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13 PLANTING.
lara:er proportion to the saline matters. It contains the elements of which the substance of a tree is composed, viz., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and azote. The extract, however, obtained from soils is never ])erfectly pure, but is always more or less (in all our experience) combined with mucilage, and frequently with soluble animal matters. In alluvial soils distin- guished for fertility, the soluble extract is found in the largest propor- tion ; five parts of vegetable extract in four hundred of the soil is considered the maximum for healthy vegetation.
The soils called alluvial have the power, it is evident, of preserving this substance in the decomposing vegetable matters which supply it, and of giving it out to the roots of plants, or rather to the water of the soil, slowly, but in that seasonable and regular manner which is the most con- ducive to the healthy exercise of the functions of the roots. It is evident that in some alluvial soils this extractive vegetable matter must have re- mained from a remote period uninjured for the purposes of vegetation**. In siliceous, sandy, and gravelly soils, the reverse of this takes place, for the manures applied to these is speedily decomposed, and the extractive matter given out, comparatively, at once: hence the constant repetition of manures required by these kinds of soil to keep them productive. When clay, mild lime, or chalk, fine siliceous and calcareous sand, and im])al- pable vegetable matters are so intimately combined as to constitute what is termed the best loam, the extractive matter, whether of long duration in the soil or in recently supplied manure, is economized and given out to \\ater, and to the roots of plants, in a similar degree of effectiveness as in the alluvial soil : on the contrary, when clay is the chief earthy ingredient of a soil, the vegetable matter is either retained in the manure, or given out partially ; the lower temperature of the clay, its great adhesive powers, and compact texture, uniting to produce this result t- The food of plants supplied by atmospheric air, whatever proportion it may bear to that supplied by the soil, is at least equally essential to the growth of plants, fur they can no more exist without that, than they can exist without the soil. The curious structure of the leaves shews how admirably they are
• Extractive matter, when separated from the saline compounds with which it is usually accompanied in soils and in vegetable manures, and exposed to the air, soon decomposes or pntrities. It also loses its solubility in water after two or three solutions in and evapora- tions of the water. It is a constituent of the nutritive matter of the food of the larger domestic animals, but in the process of digestion it is not retained in the body of the animal for the purposes of life, but is voided with the faeces. The pasture grasses^ corn, or annual grasses, green or soiling plants, as clovers, lucerne, sainfoin, vetches, turnips, mangel wurzel, and carrots, all contain extract as an essential constituent, which, with the woody fibre and saline matters of the vegetable, are returned again to the soil.
f The great benefit i-esulting to clayey soils from the process of paring and burning, is that of improving their textiue, and, even in some degree, their temperature or latent heat. A certain degree of what may be called a circulation of the water and air of a soil is essential to its power of preparing the food of plants depending on the soil. "Where this power is wanting, as in the case of a perfectly stagnant clay or peat, or a sandy soil, with a subsoil impervious to water, vegetable matter, however ample, in these soils will r..Mnain inert and afford no support to trees, or, at least, thej' will not long exist if planted under such circumstances. So obvious is the eftect of this principle of circulation of water and ah, (if we may be allowed the expression,) that some have undertaken to prove that the fertility of soils depended on it aione^ and that water and air constitute the sok? food of plants ; and that even animal and vegetable matters were no farther useful than as contributing to the temperature and texture of the soil, fitting it for the more ready circulation of these, and more readily jiresenting them to the roots of plants. However erroneous the conclusion may be, the principle of practice inculcated by it is essential to the successful cultivation of trees, for on it depend the processes of jiaring and Ijurning, draining, trenching, digging, and in a word the judicious adoption of the various means which are employed for pulverizing and comminuting soils.
PLANTING. cl9
fitted to imbibe air and moisture. The essential constituents of atmos- pherical air are oxygen and nitrogen or azote ; and it holds in solution car- bonic acid gas and water ; they are elastic and invisible, but can be separated from each other, and their bulk, or volume, and weight can be determined, and their properties satisfactorily ascertained*. Oxygen has received the name of pure or vital air, because animals cannot respire if the air they breathe be deprived of it, nor can seeds vegetate unless it be present in the soil and air in which they are placed. It enters into the composition of the vegetable and most other acids, and largely into that of sugar and extract. It forms about one-fifth of the air of the atmosphere. Carbonic acid gas constitutes about a thousandth part of atmospherical air, its basis carbon is well known in the state of charcoal, and is tlie fundamental constituent of wood. Nitrogen, or azote, con- stitutes about four-fiftiis of the atmospherical air. Its offices have not been so clearly discovered : with much reason, however, it appears to be employed in the formation of several products of vegetation, as gluten and albumen, and in modifying the actions of the other components of the air. It is remarkable that carbonic acid gas being- so largely produced by numerous artificial and natural processes constantly going on, as in the putrefaction of substances of every kind, in fermentation, combustion, respiration of animals, and, during darkness, by the green system of the whole vegetable kingdom, so small a portion only of it should be found permanent in the air, varying from -^l^-^j to ^oVo P^*'- ^^ ^^^^' minimum and maximum. It is heavier than the other constituents of air, and it is lost from the atmosphere, or from wherever it may exist in plants only, and forms the bulk or basis of every kind of wood ; it m\ist be at pre- sent considered as being largely taken up by the roots of plants. Water, the last mentioned constituent of atmospheric air, enters into it in the state of vapour. The quantity of it suspended in the air is supposed to
* The elasticity of the constituents of atmospheric air is so powerful, that when, from local causes, one ingredient is generated in undue proportion to the others, the most perfect nnalj'sis of the general air in the immediate neighbourhood of the spot where this circum- stance happens cannot detect any difference in the proportions of the proper constituents from that of the air of the most healthy region. The atmosphere of a crowded city and that of an open or moderately sheltered alpine region, afford by analysis the like number and. proportion of ingredients or elements ; but notwithstanding this, the influence of the air of these two situations on vegetation is very different. There are certain plants which will not grow in the atmosphere of a crowded city, and there are others which thrive in the former, and will not continue long in that of an alpine air. Some of the following plants grow freely in the atmosphere of the crowded parts of the city of London.
Plants that grow freeli/. Plants that exist fur oyihj a few years in perfect health.
Sycamore. Laburnum.
Elms.
Mulberries That exist in health only a limited time.
Ivies Privets
Virginian Creepers China Roses
Vines Alpine Plants, scarcely ever produce
Oriental Planes, bulbous and tuberous- flowers,
rooted plants, except Snowdrops.
Since the above list was written, the Bedford Conservatory, or new flovv'er and plant market, Covent Garden, London, has been erected by John I^uke of Bedford, and this interesting feature to the ornament of the metropolis will afford extensive nuans to determine what species of hardy as well as of tender plants will thrive in the atmosphere of so large and crowded a city as that of London. Since this part of the market was com- jikted in the month of June last year, the following plants may he mentioned as having thriven best. The orange, Ci7n« aurantium; ca.mi:\\\a., Camellia Juponica ; rhododendrons, R. ponticum, R. madimum, R. punctatum. Some kinds of pelargoniums, Gcranacece. Heaths, particularly Erica titlijlora, E. cijlindriia, E. persoluta, E. ciiprcssina, E. odora- rom ; Acacia vcrticilluta^ A. armuta, Epachris ijrandijlora, E, puugcns rosea.
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20 PLANTING.
vary from j.}^ to ^J^ part of the atmosphere, being jyreater as the weather is dry and hot, at which time it is most useful to the growth and health of plants, being absorbed by the leaves *. It is clear that water constitutes immeasurably the largest portion of what is taken up by the roots and furnished to the plant by the soil ; and when it is considered that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, it cannot be supposed to act merely as a vehicle of the food of the tree ; it contributes, probably, to the in- crease of the solid parts of the living structure by decomposition into its elements, through the agency of the vital powers.
Such are the general facts disclosed by chemical examinations of the soil and atmospherical air, with respect to the substances supplied by them to plants as food. An analysis of the sap itself immediately after its absorption by tiie spongeols of the rootlets, and before it enters the ascending vessels of the alburnum, t would probably leave nothing more to be desired on this important subject, that might apply to the operations of the practical planter. The sap hitherto examined chemically, has been taken from the albiu'num of the tree, and consequently after it had undergone a change in its original constitution, or that which characterised it at the mo- ment of its entering the spongeols of the rootlets immediately from the soil. That the sap undergoes a change in the ascending vessels of the alburnum before it is acted upon by the leaves, has been proved by Knight and others. In these instances, the sap extracted from the lower part of the tree, con- tained much less saccharine matter, than that taken from a more elevated part of the stem. According to Vauquelin, water, extract, mucilage, sugar, and acetic acid, combined with potash or lime, are found in sap taken from the alburnum or ascending sap vessels of the birch, elm, and beech ; but these vary in the sap of different species of trees. Saccharine matter is most abundant in the birch and sugar maple. These results, however, afford but little light in the investigation of the question, as we know that the same sap which produces the acid, astringent crab, produces also the saccharine, aromatic pippin. By the action of heat, light, air, and the peculiar organic structure in different species of trees, under the influence of the vital power, are those substances which are soluble in water, or saccharine and nuicilaginous fluids converted into insoluble or resinous and oily substances.
* Tlio vaUie of vapour in air to the health of plants, is well known and appreciaied by every skilful cultivator of tropical plants in an artificial atmosphere, as well as by the successful forcing fruit and flower j^ardener in the hothouse. Plants are enabled by vapour in the air to withstand the efiects of extreme heat and drought, which otherwise would destroy the organization of the leaves. We ourselves have found the leaves of the province rose, when in an artificial atmosphere, at an early season (and when its vital powers could not be so strongly exerted, as when under the circumstances of its natural season of growth and exposure) to unfold and increase in healthy growth when subjected for a certain time, each day for the space of a fortnight, to hot air strongly charged with vapour, while leaves of the same species did not imfuld, or when unfolded previously to the application, shrivelled up and perished under the application of a dry current of air, of the like temperature, and though all other circumstances were equal.
f The rapid communication which exists between the spongeols of the rootlets and the leaves at the extremity of the tree, as evidenced by the sudden effects produced on the latter by the application of water to the roots of a tree whose leaves have become flaccid or drooping from the want of it, warrants the idea that the ascent of fluids from the roots to the leaves is more direct than our knowledge of the structure of the vessels will allow, or that a principle exists in the vegetable structure analogous to that of the irritability of the animal fibre. The well known ex-periments of Hales to ascertain the force with which the sap of trees ascends, shew that the sap of a vine branch four or five years old rises with a force considerably superior to atmospherical pressure. Plants having the leaves firm and glossy, exhibited proportionally less force in their ascending sap, Vide regetdhle Statics, vol. 1., p. 114.
PLANTING. 21
From these facts we may conclude that soluble substances, chiefly vegetable extract, mucilag-e and carbon, with water as a vehicle and a component, presented to the roots of plants under circumstances varying according- to the chemical constitution, and mechanical texture of soils, adapted to the peculiar habits or natural wants of different species of trees, as the oak for instance, and the larch, constitute the food of trees supplied by the soil to the roots; and that atmospheric air of a certain temperature, and degree of moisture, and with freedom of circulation, constitutes that other essential part of the nourishment of trees, which is taken up by the leaves or green system of the plant.
Air, like water, requires a certain freedom from stagnation or confinement to render its nourishing and invigorating properties available to the leaves of trees; when comparatively stagnant, its valuable properties become lost to plants. This is indicated by the disappearance of the green colour from the leaves, which soon drop off, and are not reproduced, but the branches die ; a few remaining alive at the top of the stem, may continue the existence of the tree for a few years, but without adding to its girth or solidity of contents. These are the invariable effects of stagnant air, the most common and indeed the only cause of which in plantations is the neglect of seasonable thinning of the trees, and the removal of dead and decaying vegetable matter as it is produced.
The putrefactive fermentation of spray and brushwood left in close plantations where the circulation of the air is confined, produces fetid gaseous matters, alike hurtful to animal and to vegetable life ; the growth of moss on the bark of trees is promoted by it, and whenever this becomes general in a plantation, the progress of the trees is greatly retarded. We cannot better illustrate the importance of attending to this principle of practice in the planter's art, than by stating an instance kindly com- municated to us by high authority* on the subject: in many places over an extent of upwards of a thousand acres of the plantations at Blair Adam the prunings of spray and brushwood, and the lo])pings of the trees thinned out, for which there is no sale in this country, had been allowed to accumulate for many years. The injurious effect was so remarkable, that the proprietor determined to have the accumulation removed. This was done at an expense not very considerable. Ever since the accumulation has been prevented by having a squad of women and boys, to clear away and brush after the woodcutters or pruners. The expense of this operation has been overpaid by the increase of growth, and it is evident that it has added greatly to the value and beauty of the woods, as well as to the growth of underwood t-
To have entered more minutely into the details of the vegetable physiology would have been incompatible with the scope and design of this essay, and to have dwelt less on those principles which bear directly upon every operation of the planter's art, would have rendered the practical details which follow, more obscure and less instructive.
* The Right Hon. Lord Chief Commissioner Adam.
t We have had the gratification lately of examining a considerable part of these plantations, and at the same time of witnessing the triumph of art in rearing valuable timber on situations of great elevation, and in many places more or less elevated, in which wet and undrained land presented ditHculties to be encountered and overcome.
22 PLANTING.
Chapter III.
Of the different modes of rearing forest-trees : — By sowing the seeds on the spot ivhere they are to remain for timber. By sowing the seeds on nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young trees to their timber sites. Modes of propagating and of transplanting, preserving, and training, proper shoots or suckers produced by coppice roots or stools. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the different modes ; and of simple and mixed plantations. Before the seeds of forest-trees are sown on the spots where the plants are to remain for the produce of timber, or tlie young' trees are trans- planted from nursery beds to their timber sites, the land should be fenced and properly prepared for their reception. As fences, however, are con- structed of various materials, turf, or earth, stones, wood, and thorns, or other armed shrubs, and the judicious adoption of the best kind offence depending' on local circumstances, this part of the subject, perhaps, may be more conveniently discussed under a separate head. It has been supposed, with good reason, but certainly without the evidence of such clear and undisputable facts as are absolutely necessary to bring full con- viction to practical men, that when forest-trees are reared immediately from seed, and consequently whose lap roots, proper roots, and rootlets have never been disturbed or curtailed, they grow faster, attain to earlier maturity, and produce sounder timber, than such as are transplanted from nurseries. The facts brought forward respecting the structure and growth of trees confirm this opinion ; but when useful or profitable planting is the object of the planter, it is necessary to inquire whether these apparent advantages are not lost for the most part, or entirely, in the extra cost or expense which attends the execution of this method, in comparison to that of transplanting ; or whether the extra feet of timber, that may be thus gained, will repay with profit the increased cost of production. A detail of the different processes of these two first-mentioned modes of rearing Ibrest-trees may assist materially in coming to a just conclusion on this important question. The oak being one of the most valuable of forest- trees, and its i-oots penetrating more directly, and to a greater dejjth in the subsoil than those of any other tree approximating to it in value, it has been thought to sutler great injury by transplanting, and has, therefore, been chiefiy insisted upon to be raised immediately from seed on its timber site. Should the land on which it is intended to rear oak immediately from seed, be not in a clear state of tillage, it must be brought into that state by the most eligible means; these, of course, will depend on the nature of the soil and condition of its surface. If the soil to be sown is clayey and tenacious, retentive of moisture, and covered with coarse plants, as sedges (carix), rushes (juncus), thistles (carduus), and turfy hair-grass (aiia cajspitosa), the surface should be pared and burnt, the ashes care- fully applied, and the soil ploughed as deep as the nature of the subsoil will permit. It should have a clear out summer fallow, with repetitions of cross ploughings and harrowings, as often as is necessary, to bring the land to a friable and deep tilth. It should be ploughed into ridges twelve feet wide, sufficiently high to give an inclination from the crowns of the ridges on each hand to carry ofl' all surface water, and be well water-furrowed. A dressing should be applied of compost of dung, coal ashes, road scrapings, sand, &c., or any other manure that can be procured, which may have a tendency to divide the texture of the tenacious soil, and make the tilth friable and deep. This part of the process will be found highly useful, and also necessary to insure a well-founded hope
PLANTING. 23
of success. An application of lime, when it can be procured at a rea- sonable cost, will also he foinid hi£>-hly useful.
Should the effects of these operations have been powerful enou<^h to brino- the land to the essential condition of cleanness, depth, and fineness of tilth required, the soil will be ready for the reception of the acorns in the spring;. Unreclaimed lands, however, of this description can seldom be prepared as above by the out summer's fallow only; and in such cases it will be necessary to continue the process of fallowing for another season. A o-reen crop fallow may be now adopted ; and should the weather be favourable, the crop will probably cover the expense of cleaning- for that season, or at all events considerably lessen the cost of fallowing;. The choice of the croj) to be employed must be determined by the condition or adaptation of the soil to certain kinds of green crops, and the g-reater local demand that may be tor one kind of produce more than another. The following- may be pointed out: Swedish turnips, rape, potatoes, cabbages, and winter vetches. For these crops it may be unnecessary to add, that the row and ridge system of culture should be adopted, as affordingthe greatest facilities for cleaning and pulverizing the land, either by the hand or horse-hoe, and thereby obtaining the great objects in view in their most perfect state, and at the least comparative cost. Green crops are here mentioned for fallow, because they exhaust the soil less than corn crops, and also afford the means of destroying every kind of weed much better ; but if a corn crop should promise better advantages than a green crop, and secure the cleaning and pulverization of the soil, there can be no possible objection to it, the extra manure given with the corn crop supplying the loss supposed to be caused to the soil. As soon as the croj), of whatever kind, is reaped and carried, advantage should be taken of the first favourable weather to have the surface scarified, horse-hoed, or skim coulter ploughed (according to circumstances of convenience, in the possession of one or other of these implements), and the weeds collected by the harrow, and by the hand if necessary. It is, in this case, the safest mode to burn the weeds, for their seeds and the eggs of insects are thereby more certainly destroyed. The land should now be ploughed up to stand the winter's exposure. The mode of ploughing is of im- portance at all times, but most particularly so when the full effect of frost and winter weather is required to divide and ameliorate an adhe- sive clayey soil. When the furrow slice of a soil of this description is reversed, or laid quite flat, the weight and tenacity of the soil consolidate its surface almost immediately, and obstruct the action of the weather in breaking down the texture of the soil, as well as that of the harrows in raising a tilth, or the greatest depth of mould for covering the seeds. But when the furrow slice is raised up so as to lie at about an angle of 45°, the greatest possible surface of tlie soil that ploughing can accom- plish is exposed to the direct influence of the atmosphere in the most effective maimer*. As soon as the weather will permit in February, the barrows should be used to raise as deep a tilth as possible ; and when this mould is in its driest state, the last ploughing should be given : the reversing of this comparatively dry and ameliorated mould to the bottom of the staple of the soil is of great advantage to the growth of the plants.
* ' Rally's plough' is admirably constructed for this mode of ploughing.
It may be supposed that the preparation of the soil has here been too minutely dwelt upon; l)ut being a part of the subject of considerable importance, iu many instances too little attended to, and from the neglect of which failures of considerable extent have had their origin, as regards this mode of rearing oak trees, we have ventured to state thus much ou the point.
24 PLANTING.
By the beoinuing' of March favourable weather will have occurred to use the harrows so as to obtain a proper depth of surface mould in which to sow the seeds; but it is essential that the greatest possible depth of mould be obtained, though the time of sowing be delayed until the middle of that month, but which should be avoided if possible.
There are two distinct varieties of the British oak, differing in the quality of the limber and quickness of growth. In collecting the acorns for sow- ing, therefore, it is of consequence to select those of the most valuable variety. The discriminating characters of these will be pointed out here- after, when we enumerate all the different species and varieties of forest- trees : here it will be sufficient to mention, that the most valuable variety of the oak is distinguished by having the acorns on footstalks (Quercus Robur pedimcnlala), and the less valuable variety by bearing the acorns without footstalks (Qticrcus Robur Sessili flora). If it were possible to have the land in a fit state for sowing in autumn, as soon as the acorns were ripe, and the attacks of mice, birds, and insects upon them could be securely guarded against during the winter, the autumn would be doubt- less the most favourable season for sowing ; but as this can seldom be done, the acorns must be carefully preserved until spring, by spreading them out in a thin layer on a dry, cool floor. When placed in sand, unless the same be perfectly dry, the acorns are apt to vegetate ; and the same thing hap])ens when they are placed in heaps, or in too thick a layer.
The land being thus prepared for the reception of the seed, and the acorns ready, drills or furrows should be drawn with the hand-hoe two inches deep, and at intervals of four feet. In order that the rows of plants may not obstruct the surface-water from passing off by the declining sides of the ridges, a point of great importance in this kind of soil ; the fur- rows for the seed should be at right angles to the ridges. The one-horse drill which, under other circumstances, would be the most economical mode of drawing the drills, is inconvenient here, on account of the curve of the ridges and the open drains in the furrows, over which the drill would have to pass*. The acorns should be dropped in the furrows at about two inches apart: this thick sowing is to guard against the numberless ca- sualties which thin them in the course of their vegetation in an exjjosed field or common, and also to allow the selection of the strongest seedlings to stand for timber — a part of the duty of the planter requiring great atten- tion, and which hitherto has scarcely been attended to, or but incidentally. The acorns should be carefully covered with two inches depth of mould. The back of a large wood-rake will be found to fill up the drills effectually and with dispatch. As soon as the young plants appear above ground, the soil should be hoed, and every appearance of weeds destroyed. Hand lioeing must be repeated as often as weeds appear, or the surface of the ground becomes hardened ; in fact the land must he kept in as clean a state, and as free from weeds, as the best managed seedling beds in a nursery garden, or disappointment and failure in a greater or less degree is certain to follow. The surface of a soil of this description, as regards the successful germination of seeds and growth of seedling plants, requires to be ke])t always in a friable, loose state ; for if once it becomes hardened aiul cracks, the seedling plants will be injured, tlieir leaves assume a pale sickly hue, and their growth will be greatly retarded. Where the plants are suffered to remain long in this state, the sap vessels become contracted in the bark and leaves, and the plants never regain that vigour of constitution which, in this stage of their growth, is so essential to their future perfec-
* These drains are recommended to be made immediately after the ridges are formed, tliat the land may have the benefit of their free action a tweh'emonth at least before the sowing of the seeds.
PLANTING. 25
tion. The stem and branches remain stationary, until the roots, by the in- fluence of a favourable season or two, sometimes force anew stem from the base of the stinted one, which in tlie course of one year overtops it, and becomes the stem or body of the tree ; the oris^inal stem, takino- the place of a secondary branch, soon disappears altogether. This is the inva- riable consequence when the growth of the plant, under these circumstances, is left to the unassisted efforts of nature — a fact upon which is founded the j)ractice of cutting down to the surface of the ground stinted youno- plants, in order to produce superior stems, which always succeeds with the oak, chestnut, and ash, but never with coniferous trees of pine and fir.
During the summer of the second year, the plants which have escaped the attacks of the enemies before alluded to will be strongly marked in the rows, and the horse-hoe may now in consequence be substituted for the hand-hoe : this will be found very beneficial as attaining the great objects of perfect weeding, pulverizing, and rendering friable and porous the sur- face of the soil at a diminished expense. The rows, however, will require to be looked over and handweeded with care.
Should the plants stand nearer to each other than one foot, they must be thinned out to that distance in the spring of the third year of their growth. In this process it is of the utmost importance that the smaller and least healthy looking plants should be taken out, and those left which indicate the possession of a vigorous constitution, without regard to the mere cir- cumstance of exact distances. When a plant has a robust stem, clear bark, and a plump leading bud, we may consider it as certain to produce a fine tree, or to contend with most success against natural defects of soil and climate, and accidental injuries. To protect young oaks against uncon- genial climates, the best method is to plant nurse-trees of quick growth, and well adapted to the soil, amongst them. An artificial climate is thus produced, and to a certain extent, also, the soil is ameliorated by the roots of these nurse-trees running near its surface, while the oak has its roots obtaining nourishment from below ; the former, acting as drains, assist the growth of the oak, until its own roots and stem have acquired sufficient strength and dimensions to resist with effect the various unfavourable cir- cumstances above alluded to. In soils suitable to oak this is not always necessary ; but deficiencies of soil and climate are generally remedied by the judicious planting of nurse-trees, of which we shall treat more parti- cularly hereafter. The keeping down of the weeds, and the pulverizing of the soil by the hoe, being unweariedly attended to, the young trees will make rapid progress, and will require to be thinned out to four or five feet on an average in the rows, in the fifth year from sowing-, when they will have reached that period at which the opposite and more general practice, that of transplanting from seed beds to the timber sites, begins; and as the subse- quent culture, pruning and thinning, is the same in both instances, to be treated of separately, we shall proceed to consider the rearing of forest trees by transplanting. No greater error exists in the planter's art than the doctrine that trees should be raised on the same quality of soil as that to which they are to be transplanted, — as if a robust, healthy plant were less likely to withstand its subsequent casualties of situation, soil, and local climate, than a weaker plant with contracted sap vessels — the invariable consequence of a poor seed-bed soil. What is the intention of all the various processes of culture which have been just described as essentially necessary to the raising of oak from the acorn on a damp, cold, clayey soil, but to enrich the soil, and render the seedling plants vigorous and healthy? and with how much less labour and expense can this be effected in a nur- sery bed of clean fresh soil, of whatever nature or texture, than on the extensive site of an intended plantation of forest trees'
26 PLANTING.
Experience fully confirms that principle of vep:etable ])liysio]og'y wliich teaches that robust, healthy plants, whether in the seedliiip; stage of Growth or of a larger size, succeed better than those of stinted growth, even when transjjlanted to the least favourable soil and exposure.*
Where the land to be planted with forest-trees is an extensive tract and remotely situated, and where the seeds of the several kinds can be procured o-enuine, of g;ood quality, and at a small cost, the formation of a private nursery may be advisable ; but where the ))]ants can be procured from a reasonable distance, it will be found the most economical and effective to purchase them from the nurseryman, and even in the former case one or two years' seedlings should be procured in j)lace of seeds, as a saving of time and expense. The following are essential points to be considered in establishing an effective nursery: fencing, shelter, aspect, soil, and management. The fence of a forest-tree nursery requires to be rabbit- proof, or h)ss and disappointment are almost certain to follow. A founda- tion of brick-work should be made for a superstructure of close paling. "Where shelter is not an object, a very cheap and excellent substitute is found in iron wire-netting, which is manufactured for the general purposes of fences to young i)lants. Shelter is indispensable to the free growth of seedling plants, the injurious consequences resulting to which from sudden checks have alreaily been mentioned, as also the bad effects of confined air to the health and prosperity of trees in every stage of growth ; and therefore, at the same time that a full protection against cold, bleak winds and unfavourable aspects is necessary, a full and free circulation of atmospheric air must be secured, to allow of a well-grounded hope of success.
The soil of the nursery must be of an intermediate quality as to mois- ture and dryness, not less than eighteen inches deep to the subsoil, and under a south, east, or west exposure, or intermediate points of these. The varieties of soil required for particular kinds of trees will have to be su])i)lied where the natural soil is deficient, as has already been_ specified when speaking of the seeds of trees, (p. 13.)
Management. — This head comprehends an ample degree of practical skill in the superintendent and workmen ; the erection of proper sheds, the means of carriage for composts, soils, plants, &c., immediately when needed, A quantity of compost and different soils should always be in readiness when wanted for the seedling beds, layer stools, and cutting beds, and a proper assortment of nursery garden tools, which shall be specified hereafter. The preparation of the soil, the mode of sow^ing, and the different kinds of forest-tree seeds, have already been described. All kinds of forest trees, however, are not raised from seeds, either because
* It is difficult to give a definition of what is termed a robust, kca/llnj plant, so as to apply to every species of tree wherein the habits of growth vary in every individual species. Tlie points of excellence cannot be estimated statically, or by weight and measure, but compa- rativel)'. A number of minute discriminating characters, collectively, are readily distin- guished by the eye, but when taken separately cannot be usefidlj' described in words. A robust, b.ealthy plant, not exceeding five years' growth, may be said to have equally divided roots, the principal ones of moderate length well furnished with secondary rootlets, and these with numerous fibres ; the stem straight, and possessing a girth or diameter pro- portionate to its length; the bark clean, with an epidermis on the young wood exhibiting fissures, as if bursting or giving way to the increasing size of the parenchyma, par- ticularly in the season of spring or auUnnn ; the buds full in size and not crowded ; the leaves perfectly shaped, and of the natural colour. The opposite of this state, from the efiects of a poor or imgenial soil, exhibits all these characteristics in a diminished form and number ; the opposite extreme or unhealthy state of a plant, from the effects of over- richness of soil, may be supposed ; for in our experience we have never met with an instance of the kind, to have all these parts of the structure in an enlarged excess.
PLANTING. 27
they do not perfect a sufficient quantity for the g^eneral purposes of propa- g-ation, or are accidental varieties only of a species losint>* their cliaracters of distinction when reproduced from seed. The following modes of i)ro- pagation are found etfectual when seeds cannot be obtained : first by suckers, second by layers, third by cuttings, and fourth by grafting.
1st. Suckers are shoots produced by the creeping- roots of a tree, which, when separated from the parent root and transplanted, become perfect trees. They are generally sufficiently rooted in the first season of their production, and they should not be suffered to remain longer than two seasons attached to the root of the tree ; for if continued longer, the sup- port they derive from the parent root ])revents them from making inde- pendent roots of their own in such abundance as they do when separated or taken up at an earlier period. The spring is the most proper season for taking them from the parent roots. When a sufficient number of rootlets appear on the sucker, no part of the root from whence the sucker sprang should be left attached to it ; but where the proper rootlets are deficient in number, a small portion of the parent root may be left with advantage. The plants should be planted in rows in fresh soil, and treated in all re- spects afterwards as directed for seedling transplanted trees. The kinds of trees chiefly reared in this mode are;
The abele tree, Populus alba.
Common white poplar, PojJulus canescens.
Aspen, Populus tremula.
Chinese ailanthus, AilantMis glandulosa.
The first three kinds may also be propagated by layers. 2nd. Layers. — The process of layering is well known : it consists in bend- ing a young branch (a,Jig. 2) into the soil to a certain depth, and elevating the top part of it out of the soil in an upright direction ; in time the buried part takes root, and the shoot becomes a perfect plant. The root which produces the young shoots for layering is called the stool. Stools are l)lanted about six feet apart every way in a deep fresh soil. The stem at first is either bent down into the ground as a layer, or cut over a fev/ inches from the root. The shoots which are produced from its sides form ^^ .9 the layers (d). The rooting of the
*" "' layers is much facilitated by ob-
structing in part the descending sap ; this is essential to some kinds of layei's, though not to all : the com- mon laurel, privet, &c., strike root readily without any artificial stop- page of the descending sap. The — -- — - most expeditious mode of effecting
this, is to cut a notch, slanting upwards to the origin of the layer, about half a diameter in length (/), and securing the position of the layer in the ground by a wooden peg (g). Where the shoot is of a nature that roots with difiiculty, it is useful to split the tongue oCihe notch halfway up, and to insert a small wedge of potsherd or wood to keep the division open. Rings of wire are also sometimes used for the same purpose, and cutting the bark round the part to within a little of the complete circumference of the shoot. In all ordinary cases, however, the slit or notching mode is perfectly effective. The ground should be kept quite clean of weeds, and watered in dry weather. When sufficiently rooted, the layers should be carefully cut away from the shoots, with all the fibrous roots attached to them, and planted in rows in fresh, well-prepared soil. The stools should have all the stumps of the branches cut away, and left to produce a fresh
28 PLANTING.
series of shoots for next autumn's layering. The following trees are pro- pagated by layers.
Maple, silver striped maple, Acer campestre, fol. ar^.
Sir G. Wager's, A. dasycarpnm.
bastard, A. hyhridum.
lobe leaved, A. lobatum.
mountain, A. moiitanum.
ash leaved, A. negundo.
Italian, A. opaliis.
striped barked, A. Pennsylvanicum.
cut leaved, A. platanoides laciniatum.
gold striped, A. pseudoplataynis, fol. aur.
silver striped, A. pseitdoplat. fol. org.
Tartarian, A. Tartaricum.
Montpellier, A. monspessulanum. Alder, cut leaved, AJmis laciniata.
oak leaved, AL qnercifolia.
prickly leaved, AL. glulinosa spinuhsa.
Turkey, A I. oblongata.
oval leaved, AL oblong, elliptica. Birch, daurian, Beli/la daurica.
Canada, B. lenta.
•black, B. nigra.
paper, B. papyracea
poplar leaved, B. populifolia.
red, B. rubra. Hornbeam, cut leaved, Carpinus bet. incisa.
Judas tree, American white flowered, Cercis silig.Jl. alba.
Date plum tree, Dio.tpyrJis lotus. Spindle tree.
gold blotched, Euonymua Europ. fol. aur.
silver, yb^. arg.
white, fruc. alb.
Y>a.\e,fruc. pal.* Beech, broad leaved, Fagus femiginea.
purple leaved, F. sylvatica purpurea.
copjier leaved, F. sylvatica cujjrca.f Ash, weeping Fraxiniis pendula.\
curled leaved ash, F. atra
flowering ash, F. ornus.
manna ash, F. rotundijolia.
striped barked ash, F. striata. Mulberry, white, Blorus alba.
common, M. nigra. Tufelo tree, Nyssa aquatica.
mountain, N. montana. Bird cherry, Frunus padus.
Cornish, P. juid. rubra. Buckthorn, sea, Rhamnus catharticus. Lime tree, white, Tilia alba.
broad leaved, T. Americana.
* These four trees are of low growth, and only for ornament
■f- Propagated also by grafting.
I When grafted on the common or tall ash, the pendulous branches have a striking effect .
PLANTING. 29
common, T. Enropeea. red tniji;ged, T. Etirop. corallina. downy leaved, T. piibescens. Elm, Eng-Iish, U. campeatris.
striped leaved, U.fol. var, Cornish, [/. sativa. liornbeam, leaved U. ne)7iorali.i. Dutch, U. suberosa.
3rd. Cuttings. — Shoots of one year's growth are the most proper to be used in this mode of propagating several kinds of forest trees. The shoots should be selected from the most healthy and free-grown branches, and cut into lengths of from six to eighteen inches, according to the kind of tree. If evergreens (a, fig. 3), the leaves should be cut off half way up from the root-end of the cutting (6). Deciduous trees should have shed their leaves before the cuttings (c) are taken from them. The root-ends of the cuttings should be cut finely smooth, and inserted from about a half to three parts of their length into the soil. For every species of cutting, the soil should be light, and composed, at least, of half of fine siliceous sand. There are many species of exotic plants, whose cuttings will only strike root in pure siliceous sand. It need hardly be Fig. 3. remarked, that in this mode of propagating,
watering is more particularly required to be attended to than in any other. The utility of the sandy nature of the soil consists in its retaining no stagnant moisture, but just suf- ficient for the wants of the shoot during the process of rooting. As soon as the cuttings are well rooted, if in a light soil of the above description, they should be carefully taken up and transplanted to their proper soil ; for although the shoots produce roots more quickly and in greater abundance in the siliceous sandy soil, yet it is unable to support the growth of the plant after the proper functions of the roots begin. Next to that of propagation by seeds, plants may be increased by cuttings more generally than by any other mode: the pro- cess, however, requires more time, skill, and attention, than is demanded for rearing trees from suckers, or by layers or grafting, and it is therefore chiefly practised for the increase of exotic ornamental plants ; but the fol- lowing forest trees are most advantageously raised from cuttings :
Plane, American, Platanus occidentalis.
Spanish var., P. acerifolia.
Oriental, P. orientalis.
waved leaved, P. cuneata. Poplar, Carolina, Popnlus Carolina
Lombardy, P. dilatata.
Athenian, P. Grceca.
Canadian, P. monolifera.
black, P. nigra.
weeping, P. pendula.
trembling, P. tremula. Maiden-hair tree, Salisburia adiantifolia. Willow tree, common, Salix alba.
Peach leaved, y^mygdalina.
30 PLANTING.
Duke of Bedford's, Russelliana.
weeping-, Babylonica.
round leaved, Capera.
gray, Cineria.
crack, Fragilis.
spear leaved, Hastata.
common. Helix.
fine stemmed or smooth leaved, pentandria.
triandrous, triandra.
golden osier, vitelliiia*.
4th. Grafting, in forest-tree propagation, is chiefly had recourse to for those varieties of trees which lose their distinctive characters when repro- duced from seed, and which make finer trees when grafted on free grow- ing stocks of their own species. The scionsf take more freely when not more than of one year's growth, but those of much older growth will succeed. Tlie most perfect grafting is where the scion and the part of the stock to which it is to be united are nearly of an equal size, for on the perfect con- tact of tiie inner bark of the scion and stock depend the perfect union of the two in the shortest space of time, and consequent equal healing of the wound. The month of March is the best season for forest-tree gratting*. The modes of grafting are numerous. French authors enumerate up- wards of forty ; for the purposes now under consideration, however, that termed whip or tongue grafting is generally followed. The scions should be selected from the more upright, free-growing branches ; the middle portion of the shoot is the best; but where there is a scarcity of grafts, the top and bottom may be used, as these will succeed, though not likely to produce such fine trees. From two to five buds should be left for the production of a leading stem and branches. The stock should be cut in an oblique direction (a, fig. 4), and the scion in like manner at a corre- sponding angle fbj ; a slit should then be made in the stock about the middle of the wound, passing down- wards (c), and a similar slit upwards in the scion {d) ; the upper division of the scion made by the slit, termed the tongue or wedge, is then inserted into the clet\ of the stock, and the inner barks of the stock and scion brought into perfect contact, at least on one side. Tliis should be effected with as little delay as possible. The parts are then to be bound with a riband of bass, and particular care should be taken that, in this part of the process, the junction of the two barks is not in the ~ least displaced. To protect the grafted parts from
drought and moisture, and from the action of the air, various means have been adopted, but the most direct and useful is well-worked clay, cleaned of gravel or small stones, and horse-droppings, well incorporated and mixed in the proportions of three parts of the former to one of the latter; a little finely-chopped straw is added with advantage. The clay should be
* This numerous and highly interesting trihe of forest plants, from the useful and varied properties which the different species evidently possess, demand more of the notice of the forest planter tlian they have yet received. The extensive and important trials in- stituted by John Duke of Bedford, now in progress, to investigate the comparative merit of all the different species of willows, will afford much usefid information on the subject.
f Scions may be separated from the parent stock some time before grafting, without suffering injury from being kept, but the root-ends should be placed in eartli to prevent the bark from shrivelling. The ascent of the sap in the stock being more advanced in the stock thau in the graft, is sometimes advantageous.
PLANTING,
31
placed on tlie grafted parts an inch thick on every side, and extend about half an inch above and below the union of the stock with the graft*. Jig. 3. Another mode, called saddle grafting, is perhaps
better adapted for forest trees than the foregoing, but it takes up more time in the performance. The stock should be cut so as to leave the top in the form of a wedge (a, Jig. 5) ; the scion split at the lower end, and each side of the incision pared obliquely, so as to form the two divisions into tongue-like pro- cesses (b) ; these are then seated on the wedge and made to fit accurately to each side of it. The after operations of tying and claying are the same as in the former mode. The trees which come under the forester's care that require to be reared by grafting- are the following :
Broad-leaved evergreen oak, Querci/s ilex hdifolia.
entire leaved, Q. ilex integrifolia,
Lucomb's, Q. Exonicnsis.
Turner's, Q. Exoniensis Turneri.
broad-leaved Lucomb's, Q. Exoniensis latifolius. Sweet crab tree, Pi/riis coronaria.
Siberian crab, P. pninifolia.
willow leaved, P. salicifolia.
Chinese, P. spe.ctahilis.
wild service, P. terniinalis.
white beam, P. aria.
Swedish white beam, P. aria dentaia.
small fruited crab, P. haccatn. Heart-leaved poplar, Popuhis candicans.
various leaved, P. helerophylla.
smooth leaved, P. heter. Iccvigata. Upright medlar, Mespilus germanica.
weeping medlar, M. ger. diffusa. Entire leaved ash, Fraxinns simplicifolia.
striped barked, F. striata.
variegated, F. variegata.
white American, F. Americanus.
black, F. Amer. puhesce.ns.
red, F. Amer. rubriis. Gold striped beech, Fagiis sylvatica fol. aur.
silver striped, F. sylv. fol. arg.
copper coloured, F. sylv. ciiprea.
purple leaved, F. sylv. purpurea. Gold striped Spanish chestnut, Castanea vesca, fol. aur.
silver, C. ves. fol. arg. various leaved, C. vcs. heterophylla. shining leaved, C. ves. lucida. Gold striped horse chestnut, jEfculus hippocastaiunn, fol. aur. silver, 7E. hipp.fol. arg. yellow horsechestnut, JE.fava.
scarlet, JE. paria.
* It is a hig'nly useful practice to draw earth up round the clay so as to cover it entirely from the sun and air.
32 PLANTING.
The stoclcs for these trees should be raised from seed of the common species, to which each variety is nearest aUied.for the nearer the connection of the stuck with the graft the more lasting- is the union and more perfect the "-rowth. In trees that have been grafted on unsuitable stocks, we frequently see the base of the stem abruptly contracted to a smaller cir- cumference than the upper portion, and vice versa, just as the stock or the graft hapjiens to possess the freest habit of growth. The stocks sliould be planted in rows two feet apart, and should be one foot distant plant from plant. When arrived at two years of transplanted growth they will be in a fit state to graft. Tlie grafts should be united to the stock as near to the root as convenient. This facilitates the vigorous growth of the tree, and allows of the earth being drawn up on each side to cover the clayed portion of the graft. The clay should be removed from the grafts, and the ties or bandages loosened when the progress of the new shoots of the graft indicates the perfect completion of the process. In the spring tbl- lowing that in which the trees were grafted, many of them may be transplanted to their permanent sites ; but it is better, as a general rule, to defer transplanting until the second autumn or spring. The size of the different kinds of trees most suitable for final transplanting is a point of some importance, particularly when the planting is on a large scale, and where the preservation of every fibre of the roots of the plants cannot be accomplished without an unnecessary e.\pense of time and labour. A very young plant may be readily taken up and triinsplanted with its roots entire; but a plant of several feet in height requires considerable care in taking it up to preserve its roots from injury. The structure and the functions of the roots of trees, as connected with the produce and support of the plant were before described, and clearly point out the essential use of the minute rootlets and their accompanying spongeols or glands to the noin-ishment of the plant in every stage of its growth, and under every change of circumstance. Accordingly we find that, if a plant is taken up and transplanted witli all its roots entire and uninjured, it experiences scarcely any perceptible check, unless its roots are exposed to the effects of the sun and wind for any considerable time, in which case it makes little, if any progress for a season. A moderate degree of pruning, however, of the overgrown and straggling roots of young trees, possessing the reproductive power in a full degree, and of the branches of their stems, is often expedient, and, when judiciously performed, is beneficial: it prevents the accident of doubling up tlie roots, or improperly disposing them in the soil, an evil of worse consequences to the plant than the shortening of an overgrown root, or lateral branch. To trees which possess the reproductive power in a very imperfect degree, pruning the roots or branches preparatory to transplanting is injurious. Tlie facility with which young plants of any kind can be taken up without hurting the roots, and the slight pruning which they require at that stage of growth, point out as a general rule in deciding on the most ])roper size of the different species of trees for final transplanting, that the non-re- productive kinds should be of the smallest size or earliest stage of growth, and those in which the reproductive power is greatest of the largest size. If we divide the stem of a Scotch fir, or a larch, a corresponding stem is not rejjroduced; but if we cut down, in like luanner, a willow, or even a chestnut, or an oak, a vigorous stem will follow. Where the habit of the roots is to divide into large branches, and run deep into the ground, as in the case of the oak, younger plants are required for transplanting than in those instances where the habit of the root is to produce numerous fibres. The nature of the soil also dictates, in some measure, the size of
PLANTING. Sy
the plants. In rocky, elevated soils that cannot be ploiighed or trenched, nor can allow of proper sized holes being made with the spade, plants of one or two years growth, or such as have small roots, can only be planted: when exposed to severe winds, plants above one foot in height are loosened in the soil, and never prosper. P'or the purposes of general or extensive works of forest planting, the best sizes of the plants of the different species of trees at the period of transplanting to their timber sites, may be thus enumerated :
1st. NoN-REPRODUCTIVE OR RESINOUS TREES. iicigbt •
Pinus abies, common spruce fir, from . . 6 to 20 inches.
alba, white spruce. rubra, red spruce. nigra, black spruce. sylvestris, Scotch fir.
laricis, Corsican fir . .24
unciiiata, hooked fir . . . 18
pumila, upright coned fir , . 12
Mughus, nodding coned fir. piingens, prickly coned fir.
Baiiksiana, Hudson's Bay fir, in pots* . 24
Pallasiana, Prof. Pallas's fir. pinaster, cluster fir pinea, stone pine maritima, sea-side pine . Halepensis, Aleppo pine inops, Jersey pine .
resinosa, pitch pine variabilis, various leaved pine. Clanbrassiliana, dwarf pine. tteda, frankincense pine, in pots. serotina, fox-tail pine.
rigida, three-leaved pine . . 6 20
palustris, swamp pine, in pots. longifolia, long leaved pine.
Cembra, Siberian pine . . 6 18
strobus, Weymouth . . . 12 36
excelsa, Bhotan, in pots. cedrus. Cedar of Lebanon, in pots. deodara, Indian cedar.
pendula, black larch. . . 6 24
microcorjja, red larch. larix, common larch.
Canadensis, hemlock spruce • . 9 20
dumosa, bushy pine, in pots. iaxifolia, yew leaved, in pots.
picea, silver fir . . . 9 20
spectabilis, purple coned, in pots.
balsamea, balm of Gilead . . 9 20
Fraseri, double balsam, in pots. adunca, crooked. Romana, Roman.
* By this is meant such sorts of forest-trees as from their rarity, or recent introduction of very small quantities of their seeds, have rendered the utmost care and caution necessary in the first attempt to cultivate them here ; by and by, instead of being raised in pots, the seeds may be found to succeed equally well in the open ground.
|
6 |
20 |
|
6 |
18 |
|
6 |
18 |
|
6 |
18 |
|
6 |
18 |
|
6 |
18 |
34.
PLANTING.
Height.
9 to 20 inches.
Pinus Siftmcfl, Siberian pine
pichta, pigmy pine, in pots. orientalis, oriental pine. Lambertiana, Lambert's pine, in pots. ponderosa, heavy wooded. Araucaria imbricata. Chili pine. Taxodium dislichum, deciduous cypress. Cupressus sempervirens, upright evergreen cypress.
thyoides, while cedar. Juniperus Virginiana, red cedar. Thuja occidentalis, American arbor-vitae, orientalis, Chinese. plicata, Nee's. Caroliniana, Lucas's arbor-vitae.
2d. Reproductive trees. Quercus, oak, different species of . from
Fraxinus, ash, different species of Castana, Spanish chestnut jEsculus, horse chestnut Fagus, beech
Betula, birch . . . .
Alnus, alder . . .
Carpinus, hornbeam
Platanus, plane . " . .
Acer, sycamore . .
Maple common
Norway . . . .
Grafted and layer reared species Tilia, lime, common, and others .
Ulmus, elm, wych
Grafted and layer reared species Populus, poplar, different species of Salix, willow tree, species of
Those species which are mentioned as raised in pots for transplanting, except the cedars and a few others, are as yet considered merely orna- mental trees, the period of their introduction not having allowed sufficient time to prove their properties or comparative value as timber trees. It is highly desirable to plant them, with a view to ascertain that point, several of them being highly valuable in their native countries. The pinus Lambertiana has been found to have attained to the growth of 200 feet in height, and 57 feet in circumference*.
Modes of transplanting. Much difference of opinion prevails on the comparative merits of the different methods of planting from time to time introduced, and more or less practised. Trenching is held by some to be essential to success, without considering that there are situations and soils where timber of the most valuable quality may be produced that cannot be dug or trenched. Others again infer, that to insert seedling plants into the soil in its natural state is all that is required for the production of timber and underwood possessing every requisite value.
These opinions are too exclusive; they have led to baneful effects, and still are the cause why many extensive tracts of land lie waste, which other- wise might have been covered with profitable plantations. But in more
* Transactions of the Linnean Society of Loudon, vol. xv. Part II. p. 498,
|
Height. |
|
|
6 to |
30 mches. |
|
6 |
20 |
|
12 |
30 |
|
12 |
30 |
|
6 |
20 |
|
9 |
30 |
|
6 |
24 |
|
6 |
24 |
|
12 |
30 |
|
6 |
30 |
|
6 |
24 |
|
6 |
24 |
|
12 |
36 |
|
12 |
36 |
|
9 |
30 |
|
18 |
36 |
|
18 |
36 |
W.ANTING.
3«
numerous instances, from the same cause, {]jreat and unnecessary expenses have been incurred, only to result in a total failure of the plantation, with the consequent loss of time and property. Instances illustrative of these points have been too frequent in the management of the forest lands of the Crown, (which ought to shew an example of practical planting worthy of imitation by the community,) as well as on private estates, to require to be cited here. Well regulated economy in the expense, or first outlay, is one of the principles of the art important to be attended to in practice. Accordingly it is not surprising to find some modes of planting invented, and others misapplied, under the mistaken impression of furthering this principle, at the serious risk of retarding the healthy growth and prosperity of the trees, and of producing results completely subversive of the intention.
The great object of transplanting trees from seed-beds, layer-stools, cutting grounds, &c. to nursery rows, or beds previous to their final trans- plantation for good, is to increase the number of fibres and rootlets ; and, by ensuring the free uninterrupted formation of healthy stems and buds, to lay the foundation of a vigorous constitution in each individual plant before it be finally transplanted to its timber site.
The different modes of planting trees on their timber sites are denomi- nated, first, slit-planting; second, holing or pitting; third, trench-plant- ing ; fourth, furrow-planting. There are also varieties of these characterised by the instruments or tools used for inserting the roots of the plants into the soil.
Slit planting is the most simple mode, and is practised on soils in their natural state without, any preparation of holing, ploughing, or trenching. It is performed by three different kinds of instruments : viz. by the moor planter (Jig. 6. a), by the diamond dibble (6), and byj the ^common garden spade.
Fig. 6.
1st. The moor planter (a) is a heavy instrument, consisting of a wooden shaft and handle two feet nine inches in length, terminated by a single slightly curved prong of well tempered iron or steel fifteen inches in length, two and a half inches broad at the insertion of the shaft, and gradually tapering to the point. The handle is made sufficiently large to be grasped by both hands, and the operator with one stroke drives the prong into the ground to the depth required for seedling trees, and by depressing the handle, the point of the instrument raises up the earth, leaving a vacuity or opening in loose earth, into which a person, holding a plant in readiness, places the root, and with the foot fixes it in the soil. A stout active workman with this instrument, and the aid of a boy, will transplant a greater number of seedling trees on light moor soils than by any other method at present known.
2d. The diamond dibble (b) is recommended by Sang* : it is made of a
, • Planter's Kalendar, p. 170. '
D 2
36 PLANTING.
triann-iilar shaped plate of steel, furnished with an iron shaft and wooden handle. The sides are each four inches long, and the upper part or side four inches and a half broad. It is used for planting on sandy and gravelly soils where the surface produce of herbage is short. In this case the planter makes the ground ready with the instrument in one hand, and inserts the plant with the other. He carries the plants in a bag or basket sus- pended from his waist ; he strikes the dibble into the ground in a slanting direction so as to direct the point inwards, and, by drawing the handle towards himself, an opening is made, and kept open by the steel plate for the reception of the roots of the plant by the other hand. The instrument is tlien removed, and the earth made firm about the roots of the plant by a stroke with the heel of the instrument.
.3d. By the spade, a cut is made in the turf with the spade and crossed by another at a right angle: the two cuts thus made resemble the figure of the letter T. The handle of the spade being depressed backwards forces open the edges of the cuts, and in the opening thus made the roots of the plant are inserted ; the spade is then withdrawn, and the turf replaced by pressure with the foot.
Sir John Sinclair describes an improved mode of slit-planting, as follows: The operator with his spade makes three cuts, twelve or fifteen inches long, crossing each other in the centre, at an angle of sixty degrees, the whole having the form of a star. He inserts his spade across one of the rays (a), a few inches from the centre, and on the side next himself; Fiz-7. then bending the handle towards himself and almost to the
ground, the earth opening in fissures from the centre in the direction of the cuts that had been made, he, at the same instant, inserts his plant at the point where the spade, intersected the ray (o), pushing it forward to the centre, and assisting the roots in rambling through the fissures. He then lets down the earth by removing liis spade, hav- a ing compressed it into a compact state with his heel; the
operation is finished by adding a little earth with the grass side down, completely covering the fissures, for the purpose of retaining the moisture at the root, and likewise as a top dressing, which greatly encourages the plant to push fresh roots between the swards'*^.
4th. The defects of the slit mode of planting are, that the earth is not properly reduced in its texture to suit the tender fibres of the roots of seed- ling plants, and the natural plants of the surface are left to contend with ihem for the nourishment aftbrded by the soil, nor can the rootlets of the young trees be disposed and placed in their right positions. The least objectionable practice is to cut a circular piece of the turf, a foot in dia- meter, and lay it on one side with the surface downwards ; the workman tlien with his spade loosens and breaks down the texture of the uncovered soil, and, by making ample space for the extension of the roots of his plant in every direction, inserts it in the pulverized eartl). The turf which had been reversed and laid on one side, is then with a stroke of the spade divided into two equal parts, and replaced on each side of the plant in its reversed position. The reversed turf supports the plant against the effects of the wind, retains the proper moisture of the soil, and prevents the evil consequences resulting to the lateral branches of the young tree, and to the healthy progress of the stem, from the imcontroUed growth of the herbage natural to the soil, — all of which, by the former modes, are rather encouraged than checked. In uninclosed commons or moors, the natural
* General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 283.
PLANTING. ZT
herbage and shrubby plants are kept under by cattle, &c. ; but when such lands are inclosed for planting-, and thereby protected from stock, the natural plants, which before appeared diminutive and slow of growth, sud- denly attain a size and vigorous vegetation highly detrimental to the young forest trees.
2. Matlonk planting is confined chiefly to rocky ground, and to soils containing many coarse, tough roots of herbage, heath, &c. ; and under these circumstances the mattock is an indispensable instrument. It is tluis described in the Planter's Kalendar: — 'The handle is three feet six inches long; the mouth is five inches broad, and is made sharp; the length of it to the eye or shaft is sixteen inches, the small end or pick is seventeen inches long' (c, fig. 6). It may be unnecessary to mention that the broad or hoe end should be faced with steel and kept well sharpened ; it is perfectly effective in cutting or paring the heath, furze, &c., and the pick end is equally so for thoroughly loosening and fitting the soil to be operated uj^on with the spade or planter (d). The Hackle prongs are recommended for clayey, tenacious soils*, which are difficult to work with the spade. It is made with two or three prongs ; the former of two for the soil just mentioned, and the latter of three prongs for stony or gravelly soils.
3. Holing. — Holes or pits are dug out, and the loosened soil left for a season to the action of the weather, to ameliorate and reduce its texture. Time should be afforded for the rotting or decomposition of the turf or surface produce taken off the space which is opened, previous to the period of planting. The size of the holes should vary according to the size of the plants to be planted, and to the nature of the subsoil. Plants from one and a half to two feet high should have the holes two feet wide and eighteen inches deep, prejiared in the summer or autumn for the reception of the plants in spring. For trees of larger growth, the extent of the roots must determine the size of the holes, making an allowance of from six inches to a foot of extra width beyond the extreme points of the roots. Holes made in tenacious clays retain the water which falls into them, and rots the roots of the trees ; dry, light, sandy soils cannot be benefited by the pulveriziug action of the sun and air; rocky soils admit but imperfectly of holing; and some kinds of binding gravelly soils are as liable to the retention of moisture as stiff clays. The practice of holing is therefore never attended with success on these kinds of soil.
Spade planting applies to land prepared for the reception of the plants by trenching. Although this mode of planting is the most common in use, and may appear to require but little exercise of skill on the part of the oi)erator, it is nevertheless often very badly executed. It is best performed when the holes are made a few inches wider than the roots of the plant extend; the earth of the bottom of the hole should be broken down with the sjjade, the sides all round should be made to slope inwards, so as to cause the bottom to be wider than the top. The person who holds the plant should then place it in the centre of the pit, and the operator with the spade should have ready some fine surface soil to cover the bottom and raise it up to the proper height, the person holding the plant raising it at the same time, so tliat it may stand not deeper in the soil than it previously stood. The earth should then be carefully thrown in a finely divided state, and the plant during the operation slightly moved, so as to prevent the roots from being covered in bundles, and to afford each root and rootlet to have a portion of soil intervening between it and the rest.
* Pontey's Profitable Planter.
88 PLANTING.
Treading should be avoided, as it renders the soil cohesive, which in stiff or heavy land is an evil of great magnitude to newly-planted roots. In light soils, however, a slight pressure with the foot to keep the plant steady in its place is necessary, particularly if the weather is dry during the season of planting; but in cases where it is practicable, it is much more beneficial to settle the earth about the roots of the plants by a free application of water ia the usual manner.
It is the best and most expeditious practice to have one set of men to make the holes, and another to finish the planting. When different species of trees are to be mixed in the plantation, and in unequal proportions, each species is successively distributed and planted. What we have already stated respecting the great importance to the success of the plants of not suffering the roots to be dried by exposure to the sun or wind, may render it unnecessary to urge here, that the distribution of the plants on the ground should not be farther in advance than just to keep the planters fully employed. Before laying the plants out on the spots where they are to be planted, it is a most useful practice to dip the roots in water, or in a puddle made of water and rich mould. In planting on a confined scale, the plants may be distributed as before, and two workmen may proceed to open the pits on the spots. As soon as the hole is opened, one of the operators places the roots of the plant in the hole, while the other with his spade finishes the process as above directed. By this method the holes can be made proportionate to the size of the roots of the different plants, which, when of various species, are oftentimes also of different sizes. When circumstances war- rant the previous preparation of the soil necessary to this mode of planting, it should be adopted, as being the most perfect and effective. '
Furrow planting is performed by opening a furrow with the trenching plough, or with two common ploughs ; the one succeeding the other in the same trench or furrow, and opening it to the depth required by the roots of the trees. The roots being placed in the furrow at the proper distances, the workman with the spade finds no difficulty in obtaining the necessary quantity of pulverized soil to complete the work. This mode of planting has been practised with success on the Duke of Bedford's estates in Bedfordshire, and in Buckinghamshire in the neighbourhood of Woburn. The implement employed was a very strong plough, drawn by six horses, and opening a furrow from twelve to sixteen inches deep, turning the sward or heath over on each side. This was followed by a scuffler or grubber of three tines, which completely stiiTed and pulverized the soil. On light land eight acres a day was done in this way, but the soil must be light and free from large stones or other obstructions.
That extensive and valuable plantations have been made by slit planting there are abundant proofs, and on elevated, thin, light soils incumbent on rock, or where trenching cannot be effected or the furrow plough be used, this mode maybe adopted with economy and success. Before planting by this method, however, it is essential to know the precise nature of the subsoil, and that there does not exist a hardened stratum, impervious to water, beneath the surface, which frequently happens in heaths, or siliceous sandy moorlands, it generally consists of the heath-soil in a compact layer about an inch thick, containing a large proportion of oxide of iron, and impervious to water. Beneath, and next to this, is generally grey or white sand, surcharged with water ; and whenever trees are planted, by the slit mode, on soils so constituted, they never make any healthy growth, but perish so soon as the roots reach the hardened stratum: trenciiing, or the furrow plough must be em])loyed in such cases- to destroy the impervious
PLANTING. 39
stratum, and render free the circulation of water and air, otherwise the attempt to establish trees will be. vain. When the land is clean, friable, mo- derately deep, free from, and not retentive of stag-nant moisture, the mode of plantings by holing; may be adopted witii propriety. Lands of a tenacious, clayey nature, and also those of the best quality, employed for forest planting, oufj^ht to be trenched, as beinp; the most economical ultimately, and the most etfectual, for these kinds of soil. The preparation of tenacious clayey soils by paring', and burnino-, and trenching-, has already been stated. Since the above was y)repared lijr the press, we have perused the able tracts * on ])lanting' by W. Withers, Esq., of Holt, in Norfolk. This gen- tleman, besides shewing-, by facts not to be doubted, the superior advantag-es of trenching-, compared to that of holing or slit planting-, in the more speedy returns of profits from thinnings, and e.xtra annual increase of timber in the trees left for that purpose, lias likewise proved the value of manure to poor soils in conjunction with this mode of jireparation That such a mode of preparation with the application of manure should be highly advantageous for the growth of the more valuable limber trees on soils of the nature now alluded to, will be instantly seen by every one who has examined carefully the natural habits of these trees by the principles of vegetable physiology already discussed ; and such as may f€e\ reluctant, or have not leisure, to employ this mode of arrivincc at a perfect convic- tion, may be amply convinced by comparing that soil on which the oak, for instance, or any other of the more valuable timber trees, invariably attains the highest perfection, with that on which it or they are always inferior. Compare the constitution of the soil No. 2, at page 7, with that of the soil No. 5, undthe almost total absence of clay, chalk, and vegetable matter, will be evident in the former. Now, on this soil the oak, according to our experience and observation, is never found in a natural state, audi when planted in it, never attains to any value as a timber tree even with the aid, as nurses, of the |)ine, birch, and sycamore, which here succeed. On the soil No. 5, where the constituents of the soil are ditferent from those of No. 2, the oak attains to the highest perfection. To supply manure, therefore, composed of clay (burnt or recent), chalk, and vegetable matter, or rotten dung, in the requisite proportions, and by deep trenching (remedying, in some measure, the defects of the subsoil), and by combining and comminuting the whole as intimately as possible, the soil No. 2 would approximate to that of No. 5, and the oak might then be planted with a certainty of its successful produce of timber. Any smaller application than the requisite quantities of these ingredients will, of course, give a diminished result as to the crop of timber, but still it will give an increase in proportion to the quantity applied.
The principle on which manure is objected to for the rearing of forest- trees, is, that it will force the growth of the tree beyond its natural st;ite, and render the deposit of vegetable fibre soft, and of diminished strength and durability. This, however, is carrying the point to an extreme to which it is never likely to be in the power of any planter to arrive, were he even willing to attempt it. To maimre a poor soil, for it should be here kept in view that this and not a rich, or even moderately rich soil, is intended, can have but one effect, and that is to improve the growth of the trees. But the great, immediate, and important object of maiuire here, is to furnish a liberal supply of food while the plant is in its first stages of growth, thereby giving it the means to lorm a strong constitution, enlarg-
* ' A Memoir on the Rearing, &c., of Forest-trees.' ' A Letter to Sir WaMer Scott, Barf., &c.' * A Letter to Sir H. Steuart, Bart., &c.' By W. Withers, of Holt, Norfolk. '
40 PLANTING.
ing its number of roots and rootlets, and, at the same time, improving the quality of the exhalations from the soil, for absorption by the leaves, which is, in fact, an amelioration of the local climate or air. All these important points to the health of the tree, to the value of its timber, and to the attainment of the object in view, a valuable return in the shortest space of time for the capital expended, are thus highly promoted, and, in a great measure, secured by trenching, manuring, and keeping clean of weeds or surface culture for a limited period after planting. As an answer to the important question, will the sum expended in trenching and manuring be returned with interest and profit in proportion to those of the lesser sum required for planting on unprepared land, INlr. Withers has brought forward facts and observations to which we shall revert when discussing the subject of tlie valuation of timber trees.
The proper distances at which young forest trees should be planted on their timber sites depends on the natural habits of growth of the different species, the nature and preparation of the soil, and the size of the plants to be planted.
The larch, spruce, and pine require less space than the oak, chestnut, elm, &c. The nature of tlie soil will determine the peculiar species of trees which should predominate in the plantation, and point out the dis- tances at which they should be placed. If the soil is tliin and of a light texture, the fir tribe should occupy the largest proportion, if not the whole space of land ; if clayey, the oak, elm, ash, &c., should be the principal trees in the design ; and, if a deep sandy soil, or if the soil be calcareous, elevated land, the beech, hornbeam, &c., ought to have the preference — all with the view to the ultimate produce of timber. The following table may be useful for readily pointing out the number of trees required for a statute acre of land, when planted at any of the uudermentioned distances: —
Number of Plants.
435 360 302 257 222 193 170 150 134 122 108 69 49
In profitable forest-tree planting, the nearest distance at which young trees should be planted on their timber sites, is a yard, or three feet, and the widest space tive feet ; the medium distance of four feet jdant from plant is, or ought to be, that most generally adopted. Seedlings of three years' growth, or jilants which have remained two years in the seed-bed and one year in transplanted nursery rows, should be planted on their timber sites three feet apart every way, it being understood at the same time that the soil is thin, light, or sandy, and that the slit or holing in method of plant- ing is used. But should the soil have been prepared by ploughing and trenching, and be in a clean fallow state, the medium distance of four feet, or three and a half feet, if the species of trees to be planted are ex- clusively of the fir or pine tribe, will be the most proper. Trees of the age now alluded to will vary in size from nine to twenty inches in height, exclusive of some species of poplar, elm, &c., which grow faster than the generality of forest trees. In well-prepared Ian dof a deeper surface
|
Distance apart. 1 foot |
Number of Flsints. . 43,560 |
Distance apait. 10 feet |
||
|
H |
J) |
. 19,360 |
11 |
?) |
|
2 |
?> |
. 10,890 |
12 |
|
|
2i |
JJ |
6,969 |
13 |
)J |
|
3 |
)> |
. 4,840 |
14 |
^) |
|
? |
J) |
3,556 . 2,722 |
15 16 |
33 |
|
^ 5 |
2,232 1,742 |
17 18 |
33 . 33 |
|
|
6 7 |
3> 3> |
1,210 889 |
19 20 |
33 35 |
|
8 |
3) |
680 |
25 |
33 |
|
9 |
J) |
537 |
30 |
33 |
PLANTING. 41
soil than the above, plants from eic^hteen to twenty-fonr inches in heig^ht of the fir tribes may be planted with advantac:e ; and deciduous trees, as the oak, chestnut, elm, &c., from three to four feet in hei{jht, may be planted at the distance of five feet apart. In tlie last case a return of profits from thinnings will be obtained at least two years earlier than from transplanted seedlings, under the like circumstances of soil. Trees planted as nurses for assistinj^ the progress of those intended for timber are of quick growth, and in the course of from seven to twelve years will have attained to a size fit for the purposes of fencing", or to be used as poles, coopers' ware, &c., according to local demand. When the nurse trees have arrived at this stage of growth, they will require to be partially thinned, to make room for the timber trees, or pri»c/j!;«/s of the planta- tion, as they are termed. Whenever the branches of the former interfere with those of the latter, no time should be lost in remedying the evil, by pruning- the nurse trees, or cutting' them down. If the different operations of planting- have been judiciously performed, the value of the trees thinned out at this ])eriod will cover the rent of the land, with compound interest on the capital expended in planting it. Hence the importance of nurse trees, and the propriety of furnishing the ground at first with a sufficient number of young plants to be cut down and taken away periodically, until the principal timber trees have attained to maturity. In poor soils, where the original outlay of capital and the rent of the land are both small, the ex- penditure will be covered by the periodical crop of thinnings, and vice versa in better soils, authorizing a larger expenditure in the prejjaration, in the size of the plants, and in the mode of planting, a comparatively superior number of trees of increased value will be produced at each periodical thinning. These results are certain to follow judicious planting.
The third and last mode of rearing forest trees proposed to be discussed at the head of this chapter, is that of selecting the superior shoots of coppice stools, and training them to full-grown timber trees. The oak, on account of the value of its bark, is more frequently reared in this way than the elm*, ash, and chestnut. The timber of coppice trees is in general faulty, and of inferior quality to that reared from seeds. Where care, however, is taken in the selection of the shoots from healthy and not over-aged coppice stools, timber of the best quality may be obtained from them.
The produce of coppice stools consists of materials for fence wood, fuel, besoms, &c. Poles and bark are the most valuable of this produce, where the practice is to leave no standards, or saplings for timber. It is, how- ever, perfectly clear, that when a wood or coppice offers to the purchaser produce of various sizes convertible to various uses, along with full-grown timber for navy purposes, the sale is more readily effected, and generally on better terms, than when the produce consists of smaller wood only. In making choice of the shoots of coppice stools to be trained for timber trees, great care should be had to select none but such as are straight and vigorous, and which originate as near to the roots of the stool as pos- sible. The neglect of this latter circumstance is the chief cause of the unsoundness of coppice-reared timber, particularly at the root or butt end of the bole. The parent wood of coppice stools is most frequently suffered to rise too high from the roots, consequently the shoots emitted from it never grow with so much vigour, or attain to so great a size in a given space of
* ^ great pari of Ike elms (ulmus campestris) reared in Devonshire are from layers, and frequently defective at Ike most valuable part. — Fide Vancouver' s Survey of Devon.
One or two fertile tracts in Devon, where the soil is of the nature termed red sand- stone, is more favourable to the growth of the elm than to any other tree. — Mr, Kingston.
42 PLANTING.
time, as when the stool is kept within an inch or two of the surface of the ground. When the parent stool is a foot or more in heii>ht from the root, it becomes divided into pointed rug-g'ed parts, and if a tiller or shoot, left for a tree, is situated near to one or other of these, the stub is in time encompassed by the bark of the young tree wholly or partially, which causes blemish and unsoundness in the timber, as well as obstruction to its prosperous growth. The stum))s of coppice stools should, therefore, be cut near to the surface of the ground, and the face of the stubs as level and free from fractures as can be. The kinds of trees most profitable for coppice produce are those which possess the reproductive power in the highest degree ; these were before enumerated at pai^e 34. It may be unnecessary here to observe that the non-reproductive trees, such as all the pine and fir tribes, are unfit for the purposes of co))])ice. The shoot, or tiller, being selected with due attention to these essential points, all other shoots belonging to the parent stool should be cut away close to the root. The young tree should then receive the same treatment as other trees reared by seed or transplanting. Although, under any circumstances, it cannot be recommended to convert a coppice wood into a timber grove, nevei tlieless, should the circumstance of local demand for timbt-r trees be considerable, it is a highly profilal)le practice to allow a certain number of the most select oak tillers to remain for timber. Sliould the number finally left to become timber trees not exceed thirty on the space of an acre, the coppice produce will not receive any injury to be put in competi- tion with the value of the trees retained. Were one hundred select tillers left on the cutting or fall of a coppice, and were the periodical falls made at eighteen years intervals of time, on the second cutting these tillers would be thirty-six years old, and worth from 10s. to 12s. each. At this period of growth twenty-five of the number should be taken away, leaving an average distance between those that remain of about twenty-four feet. At the next fall the trees will have attained to filty-six years' growth, and will aflbrd seventeen trees to be thinned out, of the value of 22s. each. At seventy-two years' growth the value will be increased to 38s. each tree, and allowing fifteen trees to be thinned out. At the fourth, or last thinning, the trees will be ninety years of growth, and worth at least 50s. each, leaving thirty timber trees, of which a part will be fit for ship-building, and exceed in value the fee-simple of the land. Land requiring a period of eighteen years to produce coppice-wood fit for cutting or a fall, cannot be worth more yearly than 10s. per acre in husbandry ; consequently the rent of the land and cost of culture of the coppice is covered by these thinnings of the timber trees, leaving periodi- cally the proper coppice produce, and at the termination of one hundred years the valuable trees above mentioned as clear profit.
The age at which coppices should be cut down varies according to the soil and their quickness of growth. Nine years may be considered the sliortest period, and thirty years the longest, as oak-bark, which constitutes a valuable part of the produce, does not improve in quality alter that age. Eighteen years' growth is about an average period for coppice-wood, and the average returns from bark and wood 21/. an acre*.
The comparative n\erits of the three difierent modes of rearing forest trees, proposed to be considered at the head of this chapter, will have appeared, from the facts brought forward, to be greatly in favour of transplanting young trees of proper sizes and age, from nursery beds to their timber sites, whether in regard to economy in the first and subse-i
There are instances of coppices affording returns of 50/, sterling profit per acre.
]?LANTING; 45
quentoutlayoif capital, in malviriG^ and rearing' the plantation, or in respect to the quantity and quality of tiuiher produced on a piven space of land, and in a given space of time. The rearing' of oak timber from seed on (he spots where the trees are to remain for timber is, however, an exception to the above conclusion under the following' restrictions ; namely, that the acorns of the best variety of oak (^Qverais robur vel lovgipeduncvlata) can be obtained of good quality, at a reasonable cost, in siifhcient quantities ; that the land to be sown is in a perfectly clean state of culture, in good heart on the surface, and free from stagnant moisture ; that labour is cheap ; and that ample and complete protection from the attacks of vermin can be ensured to the acorns, and to the seedling- plants till ihey equal in size three years' old nursery plants. When all these circumstances can be combined, then the mode of rearing the oak on its timber site from seed should be adopted, but not otherwise, or disappointment will be certain to follow.
Simple plantations consist of one or two species of trees only ; mixed plantations of many diflerent species. The latter, on suitable soils, are the most profitable ; they afford an earlier, more permanent, and a larger return for capital than simple plantations. The judicious arrangement of the different forest trees, not only promotes the greatest returns of pro- fit from the plantations, but likewise effects the highest embellishment to the estate and surrounding country*.
Shelter in winter and shade in summer are also important points. Evergreen trees, and such deciduous ones as retain their leaves to a later period of the year (the hornbeam, beech, and some varieties of the oak) aflbrd much greater shelter in winter and in early spring-, when it is most wanted, than those which lose their leaves early in autumn, and should, tlierefore, be planted wherever shelter is most desired. Shade is best afforded by trees which, rising with naked stems to a certain height, after- wards send out an extended series of branches, as the oak, beech, chestnut, and elm, which can be readily trained to that state by pruning, and their spreading branches and umbrageous foliage are highly superior for this intention than those of the ash, sycamore, plane, &c.
Although mixed planting, as just now observed, is the most profitable, and, under skilful massing and grouping, the most embellishing- to the landscape, yet there are certain circumstances connected with the growth of the various species of forest-trees, which, when lliey occur, eflectually control the choice of the planter in his modes of arrangement: tliese are, first, the peculiar nature of the soil to be planted ; secondly, the climate, or the exposure and elevation of the site of the j^lantation. In planting, soils may be divided into simple and mixed. The latter allows of the fullest scope to mixed planting. Siniple soils are those which contain the smallest number of ingredients in their composition, or which consist chiefly of one substance ; as sandy soils, containing from nine-tenths of
* Planting the same sort of trees in masses was originally jiractised at Blair Adam, e. g. Halt' an acre of oaks, half an acre of beeches, half an acre of elms, half an acre of Si)anish chestnuts, &c. This was altered for a mixture of different forest-trees, but Lord Chief (Commissioner Adam has resorted recently to the original practice, especially on the sides of hdls. His reason for this is, that mixing trees of dilferent sorts (their growths being unequal) leads in thinning to sparing the more forward tree, though the tree of less vaUie : whereas, uniting the same species of tree in masses, insured tlieir growing pretty nearly in an e([ual degree, so that the choice in thinning secured the preservation of the best growing tree; and with regard to the effect of embellisliment, the large masses of different colours, especially on the slope of a hill, apjjcars to have more effect jn jjoint of grandeur than intermixture, the latter being more adapted to pleasure-grounds and the woodlands near a residence.
44 PLANTING.
sand (the maximum at which the successful culture of the white field- turnip is supposed to be limited) to one-twentieth, the supposed point of absolute sterility for even common herbage, are properly termed simple sandy soils, and on which the pine, fir, larch, and perhaps the birch, can only be planted. Soils consisting of from seven-eig-hths lo a larger pro- portion of chalk will rear the beech chiefly; and when the proportion of one-half of vegetable matter to one-half of sand and loam meet in a soil, it i:, projjerly simple vegetable earth, and comes under the denomination of peat, of which there are several kinds, but which will be more particularly mentioned under the head of soils. On this last-mentioned soil the planter is chiefly confined to the abele, poplar, and alder : the willow and birch only partially succeed, or when the vegetable matter is in a less pro- poi tion to the other ingredients above stated.
The elevation of the site of the intended jilantation above the level of the sea, where that is considerable, influences the local climate so much as often to confine the choice of the planter to one or two species of trees only, even though the soil should be otherwise favourable for mixed planting.
It is calculated that an elevation of six hundred feet diminishes the temperature of a site equal to that of one degree of north latitude ; the degree of dryness or humidity of the atmosphere, and the force of the winds seem also to increase in proportion to the elevation of the land. Accordingly we find that ditterent species of trees occupy different regions and degrees of elevation on the mountains of the torrid, temperate, and frigid zones.
According to Humboldt, the trees which grow in the highest elevation are the pine and the birch, (these also it may be observed will flourish in the lowest situations, the birch in particular will grow in soils periodically overflowed or covered with water for two or three months in a year). The highest altitude of the growth of the pine is stated to be from twelve thousand to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, in latitude 20° ; and the limits of the growth of the oak appears to be confined to ten thousand three hundred. The last species of trees found nearest to the limits of perpetual snow on Mount Caucasus, in latitude 42^°, and on the Pyrenees, are the common birch (Belula alba), and the hooked pine (Pi/n/s vnciiiata), and the red spruce fir (Pinus rubra). On the Aljjs, latitude from 45° to 46°, the common spruce appears limited to an elevation of about five thousand nine hundred feet. In Lapland the birch is foimd at the altitude of one thousand six hundred feet in latitude 67° and 7U°,
The influence of different altitudes on the distribution and growth of forest trees, is evident even in the inferior elevations of the forests of Britain. The pine, fir, and birch occupy the highest points* ; next the sycamore and mountain elm ; lastly, the oak, beech, poplar, ash, and chestnut. When the ground to be planted is, therefore, so high above the level of the sea, as to influence materially the nature of the climate, the forest trees to be planted should be selected according to the above principles. In practice this may be termed region planting. By imitat- ing the natural process in this respect, not only the most profitable returns which the site and soil are capable of producing will be secured, but also the most ornamental effects produced on the landscape, and the useful ones of judicious shelter obtained. It generally happens in extensive planting that the soil varies in different parts of the site in its properties and fitness
* The Mountain ath »ccupies some of the most exposed^ of the Dartmoor Fens. — Mr. Kingston.
PLANTING. 45
to rear one species of tree better than another. When these difTerent soils are, therefore, planted with the different trees best adapted to eacli, masses of diversified outUne will adorn the landsca[)e, having all the effect of a tastefid design, and the trees will be individnally of the most healthy gTowth, a point of the last importance in ornamental effect.
Experience proves that, for elevated situations, the Scotch fir, Pinu/i sylvestris, the Norway spruce, Pinvs abies, the larch, Pi/ntx larix, the hooked pine, Pinux juicinatus, the birch, Betula alba, the sycamore, Acer pxevdo-platanus, and the mountain ash, Pyrus aucuparia, are the most profitable : these, with the silver fir, Piiius picea, black Italian poplar, Populus nigra, the alder, Alnus gbdinosa, and the Bedford Willow, Salix Russelliana, according to the soil, are also the best adapted to plant as nurses for rearing the more valuable timber trees.
For low, damp, and boggy soils, the alder, ash, birch, abele-tree, and the willow, are the best.
To resist the effects of the sea-blasts, the sycamore, pinaster, yew, and laburnum have all been found superior to most kinds of trees. The live oak is a very tender tree, and will not exist in England. The habits of the live oak (Quercus virens) offer a prospect of this tree being serviceable for the above important purpose. It is a native of South Carolina, and there it is seldom found above twelve miles from the sea-coast. It thrives best when growing on isolated spots or little islands entirely surrounded by salt water. On the estate of Middleburg, situated on the Cooper river, twenty-four miles from Charlton, South Carolina, belonging to J. Lucas, Esq. of New Cross, Surrey, live oak trees averaging twenty-five feet in height, and nine inches in diameter, were selected from the woods by that gentleman and planted in the form of an avenue to his residence. The trees were taken up with as many of the fibrous roots as possible. The tops were lightened by partially reducing the size and number of the branches. Every tree succeeded well, and in the space of two or three years from the time of transplanting they were not to be distinguished from those in the neighbourhood which had grown unmolested. These facts shew that this tree is of hardy vivacious habits, and being also an ever- green, warrants a fair trial of its merits on the coasts of England.
Transplanting trees of large growth for immediate effect properly belongs to another division of the subject, ornamental planting. It may not be un- necessary, however, to state shortly the principles of the practice as lately brought forward by Sir H. Stewart, in his Planters* Guide. These are to take up the tree, with all its roots, fibres, and rootlets, and also the green or external system of branches and buds entire and unbroken, then to transplant these roots, rootlets, and external system of the tree in the same perfect state. The soil into which such trees are transplanted should be of a superior quality to that from whence they were taken, or at least that portion of it applied immediately to the rootlets should have an addition of very rotten manure. A point of great importance to success is the selec- tion of the subjects. 1st. The tree should have a superior thickness and induration of the bark compared to that of trees which have grown up in a crowded state. 2d. Stoutness and superior girt of stem. 3d. Numerous- ness of roots, fibres, and rootlets. And, 4th, extent, balance, and closeness of branches. Where a tree, otherwise desirable, possesses not these pro- tecting properties, it should be provided with them previous to transplant- ing by uncovering the roots partially, so as not to injure the stability of the tree during the process. To these exposed roots is applied a compost of fine earth, into which they shoot, and produce in two or three years nume- rous rootlets fit for transplanting. The overgrown branches are reduced so
<6 PLANTING;
as to balance the top on every side, if it require it. To assist the bark, such trees as intercept the air and solar rays are removed. These effects are also produced to the roots by cutting a trench at a proper distance from the stem round the roots, and filling up the trench with good soil ; in two or three years, the roots will be increased in numerous ramifications as in the former mode.
Chapter IV.
Of the Soils and Sites most profitably employed in the Growth of Timber ; intimate Nature of different Soils peculiarly adapted for the Growth of particular species of Forest Trees.
From what has been said respecting the advantages of judicious planting, the lands and sites most proper for the growth of timber will have been generally understood. There has been a difference of opinion whether land under woods or under tillage is the most profitable and beneficial to the proprietors and the public ; the question is similar to that which exists respecting the comparative value of tillage land and permanent pasture, and may be solved in the same manner, viz., that the prosperity, if not the absolute existence, of the one is dependent on the other, and the interests of individuals as well as the public on both. The occupiers of land where woods are scarce, or wanting altogether, and those where they are in too great abundance, will coincide in the truth of this observation. The proportion which woods should bear to tillage and pasture lands in any one district of country depends on the nature of the soil, and the local demand for certain kinds of produce.
I" , There can be but one opinion as to the advantages of planting exposed waste lands, and those that are steep, rocky, or precipitous. The loss to individuals and to the nation, by such large tracts of lands as those now alluded to lying utterly unproductive, is incalculable.
Lands of rather a superior quality to those, or which are accessible to the plough, and the barrenness of which is owing to exposure and ungenial climate, offer great inducements to forest-tree planting. For when the improvement is completed it is, to its extent, so much added to the territorial extent of the empire, in affording the means of sustenance as well as the enjoyment of human life*. ^ Lastly, where the local climate and soil are good, but where, at the
* From among the many instances to be found in Scotland of these effects produced hy judicious planting in changing the face of nature from that of a desolate waste to comparative fertility and riches, may be particularly mentioned Blair Adam, the seat of the Lord Chief Commissioner Adam. Here land which, in its natural state, would scarcely afford any rent, has been so much improved by the skilful adaption of the different species of forest trees to the soil and site, the subsequent culture, and, above all, the judicious disposition or arrangement of the masses and narrower spaces of the plantations, as to render the shelter and amelioration of the local climate so genial as to produce coru and green crops as well as permanent pasture capable of rearing and fattening the improved breeds of stock («). In England, barren moor soils have, in many instances of late years, been successfully planted. At East Court, in Berkshire, the seat of Charles Fyshe Palmer, Esq., M.P., a tract of extremely poor heath soil has been successfully planted by that gentleman. In a few years the aspect and climate of this before dreary, barren tract of land, will be completely changed. The plantations of Robert Denison, Esq., at Kilnwick Percy, Yorkshire, are arranged in the most judi- cious manner for shelter and improvement of the local climate. Mr. Hazlewood's larch plantations at Slaugham Park, in Sussex, are also arranged in the most effective manner for the improvement of the local climate. But there is scarcely a county in England where such barren soils existed, where examples may not be found of the beneficial effects of judicious planting.
(a) Fide Appendix to ihe Agricultural Report of Kinroi$hin,
PLANTING. 4f
same time, a scarcity of limber exists for the periodical wants of afrrlcnltural and manufacturing' operations, as for the various purposes of buildings, implements of husbandry, fencing, poles, machinery, fuel, &c., planting is of great importance and utility to the community *. In many cases, where the soil is of greater value, the planting may be confined to the angles of enclosures, and to hedge-rows.
In this last case it may be necessary to observe, that the land of the lowest comparative value for corn crops, and the most eligible for shelter and shade where required, should be chosen for planting.
When it happens that not all of these peculiarities of soil and site call imperiously for planting, it is proper to consider whether the value of timber or of coppice produce will not be greater from a given space of ground than that of corn or grass. The rent of the land will assist in determining the point, with the local demand for these crops. From numerous estimates of the returns from woodlands, compared to those of corn and pasture lands, under a variety of different circumstances, as to market for the produce, soils, and situations, 10s. per acre, per annum, of rent is considered the general maximum value of land, above which it ought not to be planted, but retained in corn or grass, and all land which rents under that value affords a very superior revenue under woods or plan- tations. There are undoubtedly many local circumstances which make exceptions to this rule; as where timber is scarce, or where the demand for certain kinds is unusually great, as in the neighbourhood of mines, hop- plantations, &c. There are instances on record of produce of the value of from 201. to 60^. per acre, per annum, being afforded by woodlands; these, however, are extreme cases, and are here mentioned merely to show that exceptions may occur to the above mentioned rule ; and that such returns are greater than can be expected from any other kind of crop what- ever, particularly considering that the cost of culture, as repairs of fences, cutting down, and perhaps carting, is comparatively trifling to that of tillage and manuring, which every other crop of value besides wood requires.
It may be useful to take a more intimate view of the nature or compo- sition of those varieties of soil which have now been alluded to. It is proper, however, to observe, that the following statements of the nature or constituents of these soils are not intended to convey the idea that they are the best sorts respectively for the different kinds of forest-trees, but principally to show that on such soils these trees have attained to great perfection of growth. The soils were selected from the spots where the trees mentioned in connexion with the soils were found by the writer of this treatise, and the trees were, on an average, the finest of the respective kinds which have come under his observation.
* The plantations made by the present Duke of Bedford are highly worthy of notice under this head of the subject, as being planned and executed in the most judicious manner. A statement of the number of trees and quantity of ground planted by John, Duke of Bedford, from the year 1802 to the present period, 1829 ; viz.
Quantity of Ground. "^ Number of |
A. R. P. Tices.
■ Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire . f>33 2 24 2,545,357
Exclusive of 400 bushels of acorns and other seeds dibbled in.
A. R. p. Trees.
• Devonshire and Cornwall . .819 0 0 2,859,754
Huntingdon and Northamptonshire . 94 1 34 330,750
Exclusive of 280 bushels of acorus dibbled in.
• " A. R. P. Trees.
Total quantity of ground planted . 1547. 0 18 . 5,735,861
Exclusive of 680 bushels of acorns, and uther seeds dibbled in.
48
PLANTING.
The f^reat importance of precision in the nomenclature of soils, whether in the details of plantings or in husbandry, must be so clear and evident to every person who may be desirous to profit by the results of others' experience in these subjects, that it would be superfluous here to add more on the point.
1st. — Heath soil, or siliceous sandy moor soil, incumbent on shale or ferruginous stones, and frequently on siliceous sand of great depth.
400 parts consisted of fine siliceous sand . , 320
Carbonate of lime . . . . 2
Carbonate of magnesia . ... 1
Decomposing vegetable matter, chiefly composed of the de- caying leaves of heath . . .55 Silex, or impalpable earth of flints . . .11 Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . .3 Oxide of iron . . . . . 4 Soluble matter, principally common salt, or muriate of soda . 4
400 The Scotch fir, Pinus sylvestris, the birch, and the beech, are found to succeed better on a soil of the above description than any other kind of tree. For the latter, however, it is necessary that the subsoil should be a deep sand. The larch and spruce, under the like circumstances as to subsoil, will also attain to good perfection on heath soil ; but where the subsoil is rocky, or impervious to a free circulation of moisture by indurated sand, which is sometimes the case, these last-mentioned trees never succeed ; the Scotch fir only maintains its growth.
2nd. — 400 parts of poor sandy soil, incumbent on shale, or very coarse gravel.
Fine sand, principally siliceous . . . 360
Impalpable earthy matter, 40 consisting of carbonate of lime . 0
Decomposing vegetable matter, destructible by fire . 4
Silex, or pure earth of flints . . . 22
Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . . 7
Oxide of iron . . . .5
Soluble saline matters, chiefly muriate of soda . . 2
400 The pine, larch, spruce, birch, and sycamore are the most proper for this kind of soil.
3rd. — Sandy loam, incumbent on siliceous sand, containing a proportion of oxide of iron. — 400 parts.
Fine sand, partly calcareous, and partly siliceous
Coarse sand ...
Carbonate of lime
Decomposing vegetable matter
Silex, or the earth of flints
Alumina . . .
Oxide of iron . . .
Soluble vegetable matter, containing sulphate of potash
vegetable extract, and common salt ,
Loss , ,
large
200 84
6 15 56 12
5
4
24
400
rLANTING/ 49
The larcli, pine, and fir tribe in g'eneral will siicoeetl well oiv a soil of this texture, although the beech comes to the g-reatest perfection, or is, perhaps, the plant most profitable to employ in planting soils of tliis nature, particularly when the subsoil happens to be deep sand, as is the case of the soil on which tlie celebrated beech trees grow in AV'oburn Abbey Parle. A figure of one of the finest of these trees is given in Pontey's Forest Pruner.
4th. — Light sandy siliceous soil, incumbent on a damp clayey subsoil.
Siliceous sand, of various degrees of fineness . , 290
Gravel partly calcareous . . . .40
Impalpable loamy matter, consisting of carbonate of lime . 5
Silica, or earth of flints . . . .38
Alumina or clay . . . . .9
Oxide of iron . . . . 5
Decomposing vegetable matter . . .8
Moisture and loss . . • 5
400 The oak grows rapidly on tliis soil, and should constitute the principal timber tree of the plantation. The sweet chestnut also attains to great maturity in the same kind of soil. The nurse trees most proper are the larch, spruce, and particularly the silver fir. The elm planted on this soil had not attained to the size of the above mentioned trees in the same period from planting, but the timber was considered of a superior quality.
5th. — Clayey loam, incumbent on a clay subsoil.
Coarse gravel, partly calcareous . . .40
Fine sand '. . . .190
Carbonate of lime * . . , . 16
Decomposing vegetable fibre . . .14
Silex, or pure matter of flints . . . . 90
Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . .30
Oxide of iron , . . .7 Soluble vegetable extract and saline matters, containing
gypsum, common salt, and sulphate of potash . 5
Loss and moisture . . . .8
400 This soil brings the oak to the highest state of perfoction. The above results of analysis w'ere aifordcd by an average sample of the soil of a part of Woburn Abbey Park, where some of the finest oaks proliably in Eng- land mav be seen, excepting those of Lord Bagot at lilylhfield Park. The following nine trees grow^iear together on the soil above described, and are therefore here selected to show the powers of a soil so constituted in the production of oak tiuiber.
Oak No. 1. — The bole or stem measures, in timber, upwards of 50 feet in height, and the limbs extend from the stem 40 feet. j-,. i,,. At 3^ feet from the ground
|
At 10 |
ditto |
ditto |
||
|
At 20 |
ditto |
ditto |
||
|
Ocl |
,k>]o.-2. |
—At 4 |
ditto |
ditto |
|
At 7 |
ditto |
ditto |
||
|
At 13 |
ditto |
ditto |
||
|
At 20 |
ditto |
ditto |
|
17 |
3 circimiference. |
|
14 |
6 |
|
14 |
0 |
|
17 |
9 |
|
15 |
6 |
|
13 |
6 |
|
12 |
9 |
E
|
60 |
PLANTING. |
Ft. |
In. |
|
|
Ook No. 2. — At 35 foet from the p;ro(nKl |
11 |
4 |
||
|
Oak No. 3.— At 4 |
ditto |
ditto |
13 |
oi |
|
At 10 |
ditto |
ditto |
13 |
0 |
|
At 20 |
ditto |
ditto |
12 |
0^ |
|
Oak No. 4.— At 3 |
ditto |
ditto |
12 |
01 |
|
At 18 |
ditto |
ditto |
10 |
0 |
|
At 66 |
ditto |
ditto |
8 |
oi |
|
OakNo. 5.— At 4 |
ditto |
ditto |
14 |
0 |
|
At 20 |
ditto |
ditto |
12 |
01 |
|
At 56 |
ditto |
ditto |
9 |
01 |
|
Oak No. 6.— At 3 |
ditto |
ditto |
14 |
4 |
|
At 34 |
ditto |
ditto |
12 |
6 |
|
The limbs extend from 40 to 46 feet |
Vom the bole. |
|||
|
Oak No. 7.— At 4 |
ditto |
ditto |
12 |
0 |
|
At 50 |
ditto |
ditto |
8 |
H |
|
OakNo. 8.— At 4 |
ditto |
ditto |
13 |
01 |
|
At 12 |
ditto |
ditto |
11 |
Of |
|
At 50 |
ditto |
ditto |
8 |
01 |
|
Oak No. 9.— At 3 |
ditto |
ditto |
. 13 |
H |
|
At 20 |
ditto |
ditto |
. 12 |
0 |
|
At 48 |
ditto |
ditto |
. 8 |
Of |
The lowest estimate of timber in these nine trees is 3,200 cubic feet of the very best quality for naval architecture. It is remarkable, that though they must be of a great age, no symptoms of decay appear in the growth of these trees ; they are perfectly sound and free from blemish*.
6th. — Damp clayey soil incumbent on clay.
Coarse siliceous gravel . . .
Fine sand . " .
Vegetable tnatter, destructible by fire . ■
Carbonate of lime .
Silica, or earth of flirtts ' .
Alumina, or pure clay ° . . .
Oxide of iron
Soluble saline matter, with vegetable extract, and gypsum
60
120
9
15
130
48
10
8
400 The oak, elm, ash, and hornbeam attain to greater perfection here than any other kind of forest-tree. The tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipiferci) grows freely on this soil when it is properly prepared by trenching. The Norway spruce, pinaster, and Weymouth pine appear to be the only species of the resinous tribe of trees that make tolerable growth on a soil of the nature above described.
* Lord Cowper's Pensanger Park oak, near Hertford, grows in a clay and sand soil or sandy loam.
Cubic measure.
In 1814, the stem of this tree measured G4 feet high . . 629 feet.
One limb, 54 feet long . . . . . . G7
Other limbs measured
696 290
986
This tree was again 'measured in 1826, and had increased to 1100 feet cubic measure. The first length of the tree, up to the first branch, is 17 feet, and 19 feet 6 inches in cir- cumference, measuring in cubic contents about 400 feet.
PLANTING.
«1
7th. — Fertile peat moss, incumbent on clay or marl. Fine siliceous sand Undecomjiounded veg'ctable fibre Decomposing- vegetable fibre Silica, or impalpable earth of Hints AJumina, or pure mattej' of clay , . Soluble matter, principally veg-etable extract O^tidc of iroij . ^ . , •
Moisture and loss • .
. 231
13
57
50
18
4
2
. 25
400 This variety of -peat soil when prepared for planting by draining- off the superfluous moisture, with whieh it is found almost always saturated, is capable of growing- very profitable trees, as the birch, abele, poplar, willow, and even the Scotch fir. A piece of ground of this nature, prepared by cutting- open drains at such distances from each other, as to leave a sufficient breadth or body of earth to retain a due proportion of moistin-e in dry weathei-, and yet- prevent saturation of» moisture in the wettest weather, was planted with a variety of trees. The trees above mentioned succeeded remarkably well, and made an improved return of a hundred per cent, in comparison to that afforded by the natural produce of the surface. The following variety of peat, which is not uncommon, is to be carefullv distinguished from the above : —
8th. — Inert* peat soil.
Fine pure siliceous sand . •
Inert vegetable matter destructible by fire
Alumina . . ,
Oxide of iron . .
Soluble vegetable extractive matter, sulphate of iron, and
sulphate of potash . ,
Sulphate of lime . ,
Loss and moisture • .
29
289
14
30
II 12
15
"ioo
The outward characters or appearance of this soil is so similar to those of the first-mentioned variety of peat, that they are scarcely to be dis- tinguished by common observation. The above soil, in its natural state, is absolutely sterile. Large applications of caustic lime and of common salt, in a smaller proportion, had the effect of improving the nature of this soil so much, as to render it capable of vegetating- turnip seed, and of bringing the roots to the size of small turnips. It has not been proved, however, what the results of planting- forest-trees might be on this soil, improved in the manner now stated.
9th. — Chalky soil, incumbent on chalk-rock.
Calcareous sand . . . 280
Carbonate of lime •
Decomposing vegetable fibre
Silica . .
Alumina ,
Oxide of iron
Vegetable and saline soluble matters
Moisture and loss
60 5 28 10 8 4 5
400
* The inert or sterile property of this peat appears to arise chiefly from the excess of siilpliate of iron and sulpluite of jiotash and Inne which it contains. When burnt, the ashes are found to be a valuable manure for chalky soils.
E 2
5^ PLANTING.
The beecli, ash, and oak thrive better on a soil of ll)e above composition, than any of the resinous or fir species of trees.
10th. — Rich alluvial or marsh soil, on the estate of Lord Saye and
Sele at Belvidere, near Erith, in Kent, situated partly below and partly
above the level of the river Thames. g„i„3
Fine sand . . • , ,98
Aluminous f>;pit or stones . . .68
Carbonate of lime ' . -■ , - . ,15
Decomposing animal and ven;etable matter . . 40
Silica or impalpable earth of Hints . .115
Alumina or pure matter of clay , . ,32
Oxide of iron . . . .12
Sulphate of lime or gypsum . . .3
Soluble vegetable extract and saline matters, givino- indication
of not more, or rather less, than the usual quantity found in
soils generally of the muriate of soda or common salt . 6
Moisture and loss , , , ,11
400
This soil had the character in the neighbourhood of being incapable of growing any kind of tree : it was supposed to contain an excess of common salt. The Hon. Twisleton Fiennes has put this interesting question to the test of trial. We examined this soil chemically as above, and found that common salt entered but little into its composition. The stagnant moisture with which it was surcharged appeared to be the chief, if not the only defect of the soil. The subsoil in part is peaty and incumbent on a clayey marl. A large open drain was made so as to command the water in the space set apart to be planted. The ground was properly trenched and thrown up into broad ridges, as recommended at p. 22 of this Treatise, with secondary drains between each ridge, communicating with the principal one. The ground was planted with a numerous variety of trees for the purpose of experiment. The results now obtained show that the poplar (^Poplusjiigra), willow {Salix alba et Riisselliana), elm (Ulniim montana), sycamore (Acer psctido-platajins), ash {Fraxinus excelsior), alder (Alnus glutiosa), locust (Robinia pseucio- acacia), birch {Bctula), oak (Qiiercus robur), horse-chestnut (JEsculus /lippocasfajiiuyi), Spanish chestnut (Cas- tanea vesca), hornbeam (Carpi/uis betulus), lime (Tilia eiir popci), spruce fir (Pi?27ts abie.t), with dog-wood {Cornus coccinea), privet {Ligustnim vnlgare), \\o\\y {Ilex aquifolium), and hazel (Corylus aveUara), as un- derwood ; — these different species of trees have succeeded in the order nearly as they have been enumerated, the first eight-mentioned sorts having, up to this period, a decided advantage over the others. The Hon. Mr. Fiennes purposes to continue and extend this interesting investigation ; the results of v;hich will decide the question, which is one of importance to the owners of soils of this naturcv.
Of the above varieties of soils, if we except the sandy loam No. 3, and the clayey loam No. 5, there is not one which, on its natural site, could be profitably cultivated under corn or green crops, but which, by skilful planting, might be made to^ return considerable profits to the owners, and also to the public the. many advantages which judicious planting always confers.
Although there may be found shades of diiference in the proportions of the constituents of soils receiving the same designation, such, for instance, as the poor sandy soil, containing ten per cent, more or less of sand in one situation more than another, yet the actual produce of timber.
PLANTING. 53
all other circumstances being* equal, will be found to vary but little, if any. But wliere the ditreronce in the proportions of the ingredients is found so great as exists belwceu the sandy loam No. 3, and the poor sandy soil No, 2, or, in a wood as between any two of the soils now attempted to be described from practical experience in their culture, as well as from a careful chemical examination of their properties and constitution, a very marked and decisive diilerence will be found in the comparative produce of timber, and in the peculiar species or kinds of trees which should have been planted in the greatest number, or in preference to others.
Chapter V.
Of the inost approved Modes ofineparing different Soils for the reception of the Plants — Fencing, Draining, Ploughing, Trenching. Of the for- mation of Rides or Carriage-Ways into the interior of Plantations. O the best Mode of covering these with Herbage.
In no improvement of landed property is economy in the first outlay of capital more essentially required than in forest planting. Want of attention to this important point has caused much loss to the country as well as to individuals, it having had the effect of discouraging forest planting generally, and more particularly of those lands emphatically termed wastes. The evil is perpetuated by statements confounding- the expenses of planting different descriptions of land, such as that of a superior soil immediately connected perhaps with a mansion, and that of a distant hill or waste heath. In the former case the return of produce is early, great, and fully ample for every expense judiciously incurred in the plantation ; while, at the same time, something must be allowed for obtaining the more immediate ornamental effect of wood. In the latter case the returns of profit are more distant, though equally certain, and the outlay of capital or expense of formation proportionally less. To estimate or make them equal to those of the first description of land, would be absurd, because unnecessary, and, in fact, impracticable, as in the case of rocky sites or thin heath soils, where the more expensive processes of the preparations of soils cannot be carried into effect. To say, therefore, that land cannot be profitably planted under a first outlay of ten pounds sterling an acre, or that the expense of planting should not exceed two, or at most three, is equally erroneous ; althougli both statements, individually with reference to local circumstances, may be perfectly true and accurate.
Fencing is one of the most expensive but essential concomitants of planting; for unless young trees are completely protected by proper fences, extensive failure will be the certain consequence.
In general the materials fit for constructing plantation fences may be found on the spot. On sandy heath soils, the turf interwoven Avith the roots of heath or coarse herbage affords a ready and cheap material. We have seen a wall or dyke, built entirely of turf, last for a great number of years without wanting any repairs whatever. The turfs were cut to the depth of from three to five inches; according to the depth they were per- vaded with the tough roots of grasses and heath, which tend to keep them firm and less assailable by the weather. This wall of turf was two feet wide at the foundation, and four feet and a half high, terminating at sixteen inches in thickness at the top. The turfs were built in rows alternately edgeways, and flat with the turf side downwards. The coping consisted of a row of turfs laid with the grass side upwards, and this continued per- manent for many years. When the soil is clayey, or of a texture liable to
54 PLANTING.
crumble by the effects of the weather, banks are thrown up four feet wide at bottom, four feet and a half hifi;h, and eighteen inches wide at the top. , On the top a double row of furze should be sown, and the face of the bank defended from cattle by drivina; in stakes of forked larch or thorns, from two to two feet and a half in leno-th. These stakes may be fixed in the bank about a fourth of the whole height of the bank from tlie furze, and pointing- obliquely upwards. Where these stakes could be conveniently procured about the thickness of an inch and a half or upwards, we have found them to answer the purposes of a protection to the furze remarkably well : these are the cheapest modes of fencing a plantation. Where stones fit for building a dry stone wall prevail on the site, they may be used with great advantage for constructing the fence. In building a dry stone wall, i. e., without mortar or cement of any kind, it is of importance that occasional courses of stones of a size to reach across the thickness of the wall should be laid in ; these act as ties, and render the wall strong and lasting. The coping is another point of importance to be attended to : the best coping is that composed of flat stones placed edgeways, and made compact and immovable by driving in wedges of stone at such dis- tances from each other in the coping as will produce the desired effect, and a very little experience or practice will teach the workman to place these wedges in their proper points. The expense of constructing this kind offence varies according to local circumstances. The cost of fences of tliis description is stated by Sir John Sinclair in his highly valuable work, the Code of Agriculture, to vary from 4s. Grf. to 6.9. the perch, which agrees with the results of our inquiries and experience on the subject.
When neither of the above simple fences can be conveniently adopted, a quick or thorn hedge is the most generally used, and in fact is the best and cheapest. There are several kinds of quick fences, which differ merely in the mode of planting the thorns {Cratcegus oxycanthm). The white thorn is a plant much checked in growth by every other, whether herbace- ous weed or shub, that mingles with it in the soil. It delights in a strong loam, on poor sands, or damp clay ; its growth is much slower, and requires great attention in the preparation of the soil, in the selection of the plants, and in the mode of planting. It must be carefully protected from cattle and rabbits, which, by nipping off the tender first shoots of the spring, seriously injure its growth, and defeat the intention of raising an effective fence at the least cost, and in the sliortest space of time.
On poor sandy soils, the depth of earth for the reception of the plants shoidd be made as great as possible, and they should be placed on the top "of the bank*. Manure of rotten leaves, compost of marl or clay, and dung, ashes, or any substance that will enrich the line of planting, should be dug in if possible for the encouragement of the roots of the young quick, "Where the soil is damp and clayey, planting tlie thorns on the face of the bank is tlie best practice. The ground should be perfectly clean, or the cost of weeding it afterwards will be considerable, and the fence will make little progress, if it do not fail altogether.
The cost of the manure above alluded to will be amply repaid by the more rapirl growth of the quick, saving much of the expense of weeding, and of filling up blanks and gaps in the hedge, which always accompanies the rearing of this kind of fence on poor or badly prepared ungenial land. The size of the plants deserves particular attention, for by planting strong three year old transplanted thorns, the success of the fence is secured, and the distance of time for its completion shortened by three years. To
The Salix cinerea and one or tiuo kindred species make ttseful and hardy fences if cut in the form of stakes, and driven in on the top lattice-form, seldom fail to strike root, a/iU in the mean time form an effectual barrier.— J\h\ Kinyston.
planting: 55
protect the thorns from cattle, a ditch with post and rails are ado])ted. (Fig. 8. a). When rabbits abound in the nein-libourhood of a young; quick fence, they are often very destructive to the plants. The means of pre- venting' tliese animals from havinij; access to the \onni>- thorns is too ex- pensive to be adopted for ibrest fences*. A row of tliickly planted dead hedge on each side of the row of quick, is, perhaps, the best temporary protection; but the most effectual mode is to keep down the number of t!ie rabbits, or, if possible, to take them away altogether.
When stones can conveniently be had, the facing of tlie bank with these, and planting the quick so as to spring through the wall, (Jig. 8. 6,) forms the most secure and lasting fence. The expense of weeding is saved by it ; and, under such circumstances, the plants generally make great j)rogress.
In the management of the hedges wlien planted, weeding is most
essential, for if coarse grass or rampant weeds are suffered to mingle with
the lower branches and foliage of the quick, tlie injury is very considerable.
The top of the hedge should be kept level from the first cutting, until the
p.^ o plants have attained to the desired
°' ' height. The sides of the hedge ought
i &, A a to be kept also of an even surface ;
/^t j fi ^1^' V by shortening the side branches every
1|~ ^5 year to within an inch more or less " J of the preceding year's wood, the
bottom of the hedge is maintained equally thick and impenetrable with the upper portion. The most gene- rally approved form of a hedge, is that of the hog's mane ; however, if the soil has been properly prepared, the plants selected of the largest size, and the keeping clear of weeds, and most judicious mode of pruning persevered in, the hedge will flourish in every shape.
By keeping the top of a hedge level, it is not meant that all the plants shoidd be shortened in the leading shoot of the stem, but only those which overtop their thin neighbours. If this be properly attended to, the evil effects which follow the practice of shortening without exception the lead- ing shoots of every plant of the hedge will be avoided, as well as those which occur when the upright growth of any plant is left uncontrolled until it reach to the desired height.
Where a hedge has been neglected, is overgrown and irregular, the best mode is to cut it down level with the soil, and then to dig the earth about the stumps, inserting plants of strong quick in the gaps where they occur. It may happen that the fence cannot be dispensed with, for the time the young shoots from the old roots require to renew the fence. In this case, tlie mode of cutting a fourth part of the stems to the desired height, and another fourth part a few inches from the ground, and warping' the remainder with these, is found a useful practice.
Besides the white thorn or (juick, and the furze (Ulex eiiropeeus), there are many other shrubs which may be planted under certain circumstances with effect as fences. In exposed cold soils, the Huntingdon willow, beech, birch, and alder, may be used with advantage. '
It may be unnecessary to mention, that where larch poles can be had, they afford an excellent material for fencing, particularly when used with
* For protection fo gardens against the depredations of rabbits, or turnip crops exposed
in the fields, &c., a wire netting has been invented, which completelj' answers the purpose.
The expense for these pur[H)Ses is so moderate, as to render the ad<.ptii.)n of ihe wire netting
no matter of ditficulty. ^^Vc witnessjd the eHl-cts of tlu'- practice at Ciuitley Hall, the seat
f Johu W. Childers, Esf^. ' '
56 PLANTING.
the bark, which tends to preserve the wood from the effects of moisture and air*.
Drainiiig is essential wherever stagnant moisture prevails in the soil. Boi^ijy lands and tenaceons clays are chiefly the soils which require it, for trees will thrive in a degree of moisture that would be highly hurtful to the nutritive grasses, and to corn crops. Under drains are of little service for forest-trees, as their roots soon render these ineffective. In general, therefore, open cuts should be used. Where the excess of dampness is caused by springs, as in most bogs and morasses, it is essential to ascer- tain the source of the principal springs which feed the secondary ones, and their numerous outlets over the surface. Sub-aquatic plants, as the alder, rushes, &c., often point out the spots where the search should be made, although these plants are frequently supported by stagnant surface water. Boring with the auger is the best mode of ascertaining the source of the spring, or at least that level of its course in the strata which conducts the water to the boggy land, and where it can be effectually cut off from sup- plying the secondary springs and outlets in the lower levels. When the source is ascertained, a drain should be cut to the depth of the strata through which it passes, so as to obstruct its progress. It should be made sufficiently deep, or the water will continue to jiass under it, and the work will be useless. From this main drain formed across the declivity, other secondary drains shoidd be made to conduct the water thus collected, from the source to the most convenient outlet. It would be incompatible with the space of these pages to enter into details of this subject. Elking- ton's mode of draining, as given in Johnstone's Treatise on the subject, is on the above principle, and shews with precision the advantages of it, and with how much facility lands, which by the old method of draining were considered incapable of being profitably improved, may be made fit for planting and returning a valuable produce of timber.
Clayey soils which are rendered barren by surface water stagnating upon them, may be made to produce valuable timber by the simple process of constructing open drains, and forming the surface between these into ridges, as before mentioned in Chapter III.
On steep acclivities, rocky soils, and thin heath, or moor lands, incum- bent on rock or shale, where ploughing or trenching is impracticable, a depth of pulverized soil cannot be obtained for the reception of the roots of trees of more than two, or at most three years' growth ; the mattock planter, diamond dibble, and spade, can be used with the best effect. To attempt any more expensive preparation on such lands, than may be made by these implements for the reception of the individual plants, would be injudicious. The number of valuable woods which have been reared in this way, are too generally known to need particular mention here. The cost may be stated to be from two to five pounds per acre. For the pre- paration of heath soils, incumbent on sand or loose gravel, an improved paring plough (7?^. 9 and 10), which we call Fyshe Palmer's planting ploughf, is a valuable implement.
The plough consists of two mold boards as in common use, but resting on a triangular and somewhat convex plate of iron {fig. 9). Tliis iron
* It is the opinion of some practical persons, that the bark being left on larch poles, encourages or attracts insects to nestle under it, and thereby hastens the decay of the wood, unless it happen that the trees are cut down in winter, or when the sap is down. — A/r. Lance.
•f Charles Fyshe Palmer, Esq. M.P., in planting a large tract of waste land on his estate of East Court in Berkshire, after various trials, found this plough wliich he invented a most efiective implement in paring off the heath-turf. It economises time as well as expense.
PLANTING.
57
Fis. 9,
Fi'r. 10.
])lale is furnished with sharp steel edj;es riveted to it (^^. 10, c). The iixed share (a, Jig. 10), which divides the turf ibr each side of the double
nioldhoard, is six inches hig;h at the shoulder, with a sharp edge taperinjv to a point at (6). The sole of the ])loui>h is screwed and bolted to the instrument by the bolt sockets (e), and the nut screw sockets (rf). The f baseof the triangular plate/"(y?|g-. 9) is twenty-one inches, willi a curve of one inch, which facilitates the action of the instrument when paring in gravelly or stony ground. The whole length of the plate is thirty- five inches from the base (/) to the point of the share (i>). Wherever the land is of a moderately level surface, and when paring is de- sirable, this plough will be found a valuable implement. The whole surface may be pared as in clayey soils, where burning the turf is essential ; or spaces of twenty-one inches, as in heath soils, may be pared off with intervals of thirteen inches, on which the reversed turf may rest to decay, and become food for the roots of the trees. When the soil is of sufficient depth to allow of trenching, the common plough, following the track of the paring plough, will effect this object at a comparatively small expense.
Much difference of opinion prevails on the comparative advantages and disadvantages of trenching ground for forest trees ; nothing is more certain than that trenching and manuring is more advantageous to the trees than holing, or any other mode of preparation. But there are certain soils which will produce valuable timber, and that cannot be ploughed or trenched ; these have already been mentioned: there are others whicli are capable of re- ceiving benefit from this mode of preparation, but where it would be inex- pedient to bestow it. There is one instance in which trenching cannot on any account be dispensed with, which is that of ground near a mansion, where the value of trees in respect to landscape effect, shelter, sliade, concealment, and the improvement of local climate, have equal if not superior claims to that of the actual value of the timber produced by the individual trees of the plantation. The question as regards other sites and soils, intermediate between these two now mentioned, and of a nature as regards texture and quality similar to tlie soils described in Chapter IV., under the numbers 3, 4, 5 and 6, which are capable of rearing mixed plan- tation, or a variety of different species of forest trees in perfection, tlie process of trenching or ploughing, and also manuring when possible, ought to be adopted. In this instance, however, it is highly necessary, before adopting the more expensive preparation, to ascertain exactly the cost of each mode of planting, and the probable return of jjrofit from the outlay. As many local circumstances interfere with the performance of these different ])rocesses, as the comparative cheapness of labour, of manure, the facility of obtaining the most proper sized plants, to anticipate two or three years' earlier return of produce, &c., it woidd be of little use here to give any calculations of expense and profits, as data by which to estimate the results of either mode of practice, that would be applicable
58 planting:
to every soil and site alluded to. Where the local demand for the smaller sized products of plantations are "Teat, the more expensive process of trenchiiio; should be adopted, inasmuch as the p;rovvth of forest-trees to the size of poles, and of materials for fencing-, &c., is highly promoted by trenching- and manuring-, and the returns of profits from these products of planting are in proportion earlier and larger. That this superiority extends in the same proportion to the ultimate produce of timber in trees, may not appear so clear, because it may be urged by those who vmdervalue trenching- and manuring as preparation of the soil for planting forest-trees,